paragraph development

· Unity

· Coherence

· Adequate Development

· Topic Sentences

A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one main idea or topic. Effective paragraphs have four main characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence, and adequate development. Each of these characteristics is discussed below.

Unity

Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph "hang together" in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer changes to a new idea -- one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the paragraph -- the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is important because it aids the reader in following along with the writer's ideas. The reader can expect that a given paragraph will deal only with one main topic; when a new paragraph begins, this signals that the writer is moving on to a new topic.

Consider the following example. Note that there are two main ideas presented in this paragraph. The topic sentence indicates that the paragraph will deal with the subject of "employees' attitudes," but the paragraph shifts unexpectedly to the topic of "management's attitudes." To achieve unity in this paragraph, the writer should begin a new paragraph when the switch is made from employees to managers.

Example

"Employees' attitudes at Jonstone Electric Company should be improved. The workers do not feel that they are a working team instead of just individuals. If people felt they were a part of a team, they would not misuse the tools, or deliberately undermine the work of others. Management's attitude toward its employees should also be improved. Managers at Jonstone Electric act as though their employees are incapable of making decisions or doing their own work. Managers treat workers like objects, not human beings."

Coherence

Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily understood by the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity. When a writer changes main ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas contained in a paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

Consider the example below. In this paragraph, the writer begins with the topic of job-skills courses, but veers off onto the topic of algebra and history before returning to the subject of courses on employment. As a result, the paragraph is disjointed and difficult to understand.

Example

"Schools should offer courses to help students with the problems of unemployment. Such a course might begin with a discussion of where to find employment, then cover resume writing and interviewing. Algebra and history don't help students with real-world needs. They are required courses that students aren't interested in, and this is frustrating for students who would rather learn about other subjects. If schools offered job-skills courses, students would be well prepared for the difficult task of finding a job once they finish school."

Adequate Development

A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the topic sentence. If the "promise" of the topic sentence is not fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions after reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately developed. Generally speaking, a paragraph which consists of only two or three sentences is under-developed. A good rule of thumb to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least four sentences which explain and elaborate on the topic sentence.

Consider the paragraph below. The topic sentence promises to discuss "several" points of comparison and contrast between leadership and management, but the remainder of the paragraph falls short of fulfilling this promise. Only one point of comparison is raised, and this point is left unexplained. Several questions remain unanswered. How are leaders different from managers? In what specific ways are the two alike? Why must a manager be a good leader to be effective? Why must good leaders know how to manage people effectively? To achieve adequate development in this paragraph, these questions should be addressed.

Example

"The topics of leadership and management are both similar to and different from one another in several important ways. To be effective, a manager should be a good leader. And good leaders know how to manage people effectively."

Generally speaking, a paragraph should contain between three and five sentences, all of which help clarify and support the main idea of the paragraph. When a writer begins a new paragraph, it signals to the reader that the writer is changing thoughts or ideas, or is moving on to discuss a different aspect of a main idea.

Topic Sentences

Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity and unity in one's writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the paragraph will be about, such that the reader has clear expectations about what will follow. An effective topic sentence typically contains only one main idea. The remainder of the paragraph then develops that idea more fully, offering supporting points and examples. After reading a topic sentence, one should be able to anticipate the type of information contained in the rest of the paragraph. If the remainder of the paragraph does not fulfill the "promise" of the topic sentence, the paragraph will lack unity, coherence and adequate development.

Examples

"The cockroaches that inhabit many city apartments and homes are parasites that are almost impossible to exterminate completely."

Notice that this sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the paragraph is cockroaches. It also indicates what the remainder of the paragraph will discuss: the difficulty of exterminating cockroaches. The reader can then expect the rest of the paragraph to explain how and why cockroaches are difficult to eliminate.

"Many television cartoons contain an unhealthy amount of violence."

Notice that this sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the paragraph is violence in television cartoons. It also indicates that the remainder of the paragraph will discuss how much violence cartoons typically contain, and how/why this violence is unhealthy for viewers.

"An increasing number of people in America are enjoying the benefits of organically grown fruits and vegetables."

This topic sentence indicates that the remainder of the paragraph will cover the trend in the United States toward eating organic foods. The reader can also anticipate learning more in this paragraph about the specific benefits of organic foods.

subject verb agreement

HUNTER COLLEGE READING/WRITING CENTER
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS
The Verb System: Subject-Verb Agreement

     Subject-verb agreement refers to a change in the form of a

verb depending on its subject. The subject of a verb may be

singular or plural and it may be first-person (I, we) second-person

(you [singular], you [plural]), or third-person (he/she/it, they).

     In English a verb changes form only when its subject is third-

person singular (he/she/it) and only in the present tense. The

following chart illustrates this rule:

           Present                                Past

   singular       plural                singular          plural     

   I walk          We walk             I walked          We walked

   You walk        You walk            You walked        You walked

   He/she walks    They walk           He/She walked     They walked 

   It walks                            It walked         

      The rule for subject-verb agreement is that in the present

tense, a verb with a third-person singular subject must always end

in -s.  As you can see, the past tense form is the same regardless

of its subject.

     A third-person singular subject is any person or thing that

can be replaced with one of the pronouns he, she, or it.

      Nancy Colon [she] is going to lead a march on the           

      White House. The rest of the group [it] will follow         

      her. The rally [it] is scheduled for 1:15 PM. Some          

      marchers [they] may arrive early. They should wait for      

      the rest of the group before raising their placards. In     

      fact, no one [he/she] should raise a placard, sign, or      

      banner until the entire group [it] is assembled on the lawn. 

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

     There are several sentence constructions that may make it

difficult for you to determine whether the main verb should have an

-s  ending.

1. When Words Separate the Subject from Its Verb

     Words that come between a subject and its verb do not affect

the number (singular or plural) of the subject. You must determine

which word is the sentence's subject and then use it to decide

whether the verb needs an -s  ending.

     The color  of the stage setting seems drab.

     The colors of the stage setting seem drab.

      A computer  with a variety of memory chips serves a special 

      purpose.

      Computers  with a variety of memory chips serve a special   

      purpose.

     Sometimes words that come between a subject and its verb may

contain a complete clause with a subject and verb of its own.  Most

often this will be a relative clause, beginning with who, which,

that or, less often, where or when.  This can be confusing because

it's hard to tell which verb goes with which subject.  Remember, a

subject and verb need only agree when they are in the same clause.

     A woman who has a career and a family has very little time

     for herself.       

     Relative pronouns may be either singular or plural, depending

on what noun they refer to.  Therefore the verb of a relative

clause must agree with the noun that it is referring to.

     A woman who has a career can still be a good mother.

     Women who have careers sometimes wait to have children.

     Be particularly careful editing subject-verb agreement when

the words that separate a singular subject from its verb sound like

they are making the subject plural. These words include expressions

such as in addition to, as well as, including, and together with.

These expressions do not function like the word and. In other

words, they do not make the subject plural even though they sound

like they do.

     A microcomputer, as well as a mainframe, uses silicon chips.

     A microcomputer and a mainframe use silicon chips.

     The processing unit, together with all of its types of memory, 

     forms the heart of the machine.

     The processing unit and the various types of memory form the 

     heart of the machine.

     The memory, including the ROM and RAM, performs the computer's 

     operations.

     The memory unit and the ROM and RAM perform the computer's   

     operations.

2. When the Subject Comes after Its Verb

     In some sentences, you may reverse the order of a subject and

its verb in order to achieve an interesting effect. In other

sentences, you may want to begin with the words There or Here.

These sentence openers move the true subject to a position after

its verb. When you are editing your verbs, make sure that you check

these sentences very carefully to find the subject and to determine

the correct form of the verb.

     At the end of the list is the divorced man.

     At the end of the list are divorced men.

     There is one significant reason why men remarry.

     There are many reasons why men remarry.

     However, remember that when you write a sentence that begins

with the word it you must always use the singular form of the main

verb (which usually ends in -s).

     It seems that women have the greatest difficulty remarrying.

     It does not mean that men do not have any problems.

     It appears that men have a greater tendency to avoid         

     commitment than do women.

3. When Two or More Subjects are Joined by Or or Nor

     When two or more subjects in a sentence are joined by or or

nor, the verb form is usually determined by the subject that is

closest to the verb.

     Neither that woman nor her friends are unfulfilled.

     Neither those women nor this one is unfulfilled.

     It is true that a career or children affect a woman's        

     marriageability.

     It is true that children or a career affects a woman's       

     marriageability.

4. When the Subject is a Singular Pronoun

     When used as a subject, the following pronouns are always

considered singular and need verbs with -s endings on them in the

present tense: each, either, neither, every, everybody, everyone,

everything, anybody, anyone, anything, somebody, someone,

something, nobody, no one, nothing.

     Everything contributes to the problem.

     Someone who was abused as a child is likely to victimize his

     or her own children.

     Nobody who deals with the problem has all of the answers.

     In terms of subject-verb agreement, the most troublesome

pronouns on the list above are everybody, everyone, either,

neither, every, and each. Everybody and everyone sound like groups

but grammatically they behave like singular subjects.

     Everybody has to be concerned about family violence.

     Everyone who deals with families sees these problems.

Either, neither, each, and every are always singular subjects

unless they are used with or or nor.

     Neither is going to explode soon.

     Either his sister or his parents are going to explode soon.

     Each family member has control over his/her aggression.

5. When Words Separate a Singular Pronoun Subject from Its Verb

     When a singular pronoun, such as either, neither, each, or 

every is separated from its verb by other words, it is easy to get

confused about the form of the verb. Remember that words that come

between a subject and its verb do not affect the number of the

subject or the form of the verb.

       Either of the parents is going to explode soon.

       Neither parent is in control.

       Each of the family members has to control his or her       

       aggression.

     Each and every cause subject-verb agreement confusion when

they are separated from their verbs by the phrase of them or by two

nouns joined by and.

       Each of them seems to be prone to violence.

       Each of their parents has a repressed personality.

       Every father and mother has to be careful.

     The pronouns some, none, any, and most can be either singular

or plural subjects depending upon the words that follow them.  For

example, some can mean "more than one," in which case the subject

is plural, or it can mean "a part of one," in which case the

subject is singular.

       Some of the families studied commit emotional abuse.

       Some of the problem is caused by television.

       Most of the family members remain silent about it.

       Most of the information comes from their neighbors.

6. When the Subject is a Collective Noun

     A collective noun is the name of a group that usually

functions like a single unit. Some examples include family, class, 

audience, crowd, committee, team, jury, orchestra and group. If you

are referring to the group as a single unit, then the noun is a

singular subject (and needs an -s  ending on its verb).  If you are

referring to the individual members of the group, then the noun is

a plural subject.

     The team of scientists monitors the Milky Way.

     The team of scientists disagree about those stars.

     This group of stars is known as the Andromeda Galaxy.

     That group of stars have separated to form new galaxies.

     There is one collective noun that does function like the

others listed above: the word number. When it is used in the phrase

the number of, it is always a singular subject, and when it is used

in the phrase a number of, it is always a plural subject.

     A number of galaxies are shaped like disks.

     The number of disk-shaped galaxies is growing.

7. When the Subject is a Quantity

     Like collective nouns, words that state a quantity or an

amount usually function like singular subjects, but they can

function like plural subjects when they refer to a part of

something, not the whole thing.  Usually in this case, the quantity

is followed by the word of.  Words of quantity include amounts of

time, money, height, length, width, space, and weight.

     One hundred thousand light years is an extremely long time.

     Three million dollars is the cost of the typical telescope.

     Two-thirds of the galaxies are elliptical in shape.

8. When the Subject Looks Plural But is Singular in

Meaning

     There are many subjects that look plural (in other words, that

end in -s) but are singular in meaning. These include the names of

school subjects--mathematics, linguistics, physics, economics, 

civics--and the names of some diseases--measles, mumps, AIDS, and

herpes. They also include miscellaneous words like politics and

news.

     Physics is the study of vector and scalar quantities.

     Herpes is now impossible to cure.

     The news about spiral galaxies seems unbelievable.

     Mumps makes one's cheeks hurt and causes swelling and fever.

9. When the Subject is a Title

     Even when a title is plural (like The New York Times), it

functions like a singular subject, and it needs an -s ending on its

verb.

     The Hales Observatories tracks comets and meteors.

     Principles of Astronomy explains the rotations of that galaxy.

     One Hundred Thousand Galaxies provides fascinating

     explanations about the content of the universe.

10. When the Subject is a Verbal Phrase

     Sometimes an -ing or to + infinitive verb form is used as a

noun.  A phrase containing one of these forms may appear as the

subject of a sentence.  In these cases, the subject is always

singular.

     Learning how to do something well takes practice and

     determination.

     To see is to believe.

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Please contact WebMaster with any questions or comments.

HUNTER COLLEGE READING/WRITING CENTER
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS
The Verb System: Subject-Verb Agreement

     Subject-verb agreement refers to a change in the form of a

verb depending on its subject. The subject of a verb may be

singular or plural and it may be first-person (I, we) second-person

(you [singular], you [plural]), or third-person (he/she/it, they).

     In English a verb changes form only when its subject is third-

person singular (he/she/it) and only in the present tense. The

following chart illustrates this rule:

           Present                                Past

   singular       plural                singular          plural     

   I walk          We walk             I walked          We walked

   You walk        You walk            You walked        You walked

   He/she walks    They walk           He/She walked     They walked 

   It walks                            It walked         

      The rule for subject-verb agreement is that in the present

tense, a verb with a third-person singular subject must always end

in -s.  As you can see, the past tense form is the same regardless

of its subject.

     A third-person singular subject is any person or thing that

can be replaced with one of the pronouns he, she, or it.

      Nancy Colon [she] is going to lead a march on the           

      White House. The rest of the group [it] will follow         

      her. The rally [it] is scheduled for 1:15 PM. Some          

      marchers [they] may arrive early. They should wait for      

      the rest of the group before raising their placards. In     

      fact, no one [he/she] should raise a placard, sign, or      

      banner until the entire group [it] is assembled on the lawn. 

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

     There are several sentence constructions that may make it

difficult for you to determine whether the main verb should have an

-s  ending.

1. When Words Separate the Subject from Its Verb

     Words that come between a subject and its verb do not affect

the number (singular or plural) of the subject. You must determine

which word is the sentence's subject and then use it to decide

whether the verb needs an -s  ending.

     The color  of the stage setting seems drab.

     The colors of the stage setting seem drab.

      A computer  with a variety of memory chips serves a special 

      purpose.

      Computers  with a variety of memory chips serve a special   

      purpose.

     Sometimes words that come between a subject and its verb may

contain a complete clause with a subject and verb of its own.  Most

often this will be a relative clause, beginning with who, which,

that or, less often, where or when.  This can be confusing because

it's hard to tell which verb goes with which subject.  Remember, a

subject and verb need only agree when they are in the same clause.

     A woman who has a career and a family has very little time

     for herself.       

     Relative pronouns may be either singular or plural, depending

on what noun they refer to.  Therefore the verb of a relative

clause must agree with the noun that it is referring to.

     A woman who has a career can still be a good mother.

     Women who have careers sometimes wait to have children.

     Be particularly careful editing subject-verb agreement when

the words that separate a singular subject from its verb sound like

they are making the subject plural. These words include expressions

such as in addition to, as well as, including, and together with.

These expressions do not function like the word and. In other

words, they do not make the subject plural even though they sound

like they do.

     A microcomputer, as well as a mainframe, uses silicon chips.

     A microcomputer and a mainframe use silicon chips.

     The processing unit, together with all of its types of memory, 

     forms the heart of the machine.

     The processing unit and the various types of memory form the 

     heart of the machine.

     The memory, including the ROM and RAM, performs the computer's 

     operations.

     The memory unit and the ROM and RAM perform the computer's   

     operations.

2. When the Subject Comes after Its Verb

     In some sentences, you may reverse the order of a subject and

its verb in order to achieve an interesting effect. In other

sentences, you may want to begin with the words There or Here.

These sentence openers move the true subject to a position after

its verb. When you are editing your verbs, make sure that you check

these sentences very carefully to find the subject and to determine

the correct form of the verb.

     At the end of the list is the divorced man.

     At the end of the list are divorced men.

     There is one significant reason why men remarry.

     There are many reasons why men remarry.

     However, remember that when you write a sentence that begins

with the word it you must always use the singular form of the main

verb (which usually ends in -s).

     It seems that women have the greatest difficulty remarrying.

     It does not mean that men do not have any problems.

     It appears that men have a greater tendency to avoid         

     commitment than do women.

3. When Two or More Subjects are Joined by Or or Nor

     When two or more subjects in a sentence are joined by or or

nor, the verb form is usually determined by the subject that is

closest to the verb.

     Neither that woman nor her friends are unfulfilled.

     Neither those women nor this one is unfulfilled.

     It is true that a career or children affect a woman's        

     marriageability.

     It is true that children or a career affects a woman's       

     marriageability.

4. When the Subject is a Singular Pronoun

     When used as a subject, the following pronouns are always

considered singular and need verbs with -s endings on them in the

present tense: each, either, neither, every, everybody, everyone,

everything, anybody, anyone, anything, somebody, someone,

something, nobody, no one, nothing.

     Everything contributes to the problem.

     Someone who was abused as a child is likely to victimize his

     or her own children.

     Nobody who deals with the problem has all of the answers.

     In terms of subject-verb agreement, the most troublesome

pronouns on the list above are everybody, everyone, either,

neither, every, and each. Everybody and everyone sound like groups

but grammatically they behave like singular subjects.

     Everybody has to be concerned about family violence.

     Everyone who deals with families sees these problems.

Either, neither, each, and every are always singular subjects

unless they are used with or or nor.

     Neither is going to explode soon.

     Either his sister or his parents are going to explode soon.

     Each family member has control over his/her aggression.

5. When Words Separate a Singular Pronoun Subject from Its Verb

     When a singular pronoun, such as either, neither, each, or 

every is separated from its verb by other words, it is easy to get

confused about the form of the verb. Remember that words that come

between a subject and its verb do not affect the number of the

subject or the form of the verb.

       Either of the parents is going to explode soon.

       Neither parent is in control.

       Each of the family members has to control his or her       

       aggression.

     Each and every cause subject-verb agreement confusion when

they are separated from their verbs by the phrase of them or by two

nouns joined by and.

       Each of them seems to be prone to violence.

       Each of their parents has a repressed personality.

       Every father and mother has to be careful.

     The pronouns some, none, any, and most can be either singular

or plural subjects depending upon the words that follow them.  For

example, some can mean "more than one," in which case the subject

is plural, or it can mean "a part of one," in which case the

subject is singular.

       Some of the families studied commit emotional abuse.

       Some of the problem is caused by television.

       Most of the family members remain silent about it.

       Most of the information comes from their neighbors.

6. When the Subject is a Collective Noun

     A collective noun is the name of a group that usually

functions like a single unit. Some examples include family, class, 

audience, crowd, committee, team, jury, orchestra and group. If you

are referring to the group as a single unit, then the noun is a

singular subject (and needs an -s  ending on its verb).  If you are

referring to the individual members of the group, then the noun is

a plural subject.

     The team of scientists monitors the Milky Way.

     The team of scientists disagree about those stars.

     This group of stars is known as the Andromeda Galaxy.

     That group of stars have separated to form new galaxies.

     There is one collective noun that does function like the

others listed above: the word number. When it is used in the phrase

the number of, it is always a singular subject, and when it is used

in the phrase a number of, it is always a plural subject.

     A number of galaxies are shaped like disks.

     The number of disk-shaped galaxies is growing.

7. When the Subject is a Quantity

     Like collective nouns, words that state a quantity or an

amount usually function like singular subjects, but they can

function like plural subjects when they refer to a part of

something, not the whole thing.  Usually in this case, the quantity

is followed by the word of.  Words of quantity include amounts of

time, money, height, length, width, space, and weight.

     One hundred thousand light years is an extremely long time.

     Three million dollars is the cost of the typical telescope.

     Two-thirds of the galaxies are elliptical in shape.

8. When the Subject Looks Plural But is Singular in

Meaning

     There are many subjects that look plural (in other words, that

end in -s) but are singular in meaning. These include the names of

school subjects--mathematics, linguistics, physics, economics, 

civics--and the names of some diseases--measles, mumps, AIDS, and

herpes. They also include miscellaneous words like politics and

news.

     Physics is the study of vector and scalar quantities.

     Herpes is now impossible to cure.

     The news about spiral galaxies seems unbelievable.

     Mumps makes one's cheeks hurt and causes swelling and fever.

9. When the Subject is a Title

     Even when a title is plural (like The New York Times), it

functions like a singular subject, and it needs an -s ending on its

verb.

     The Hales Observatories tracks comets and meteors.

     Principles of Astronomy explains the rotations of that galaxy.

     One Hundred Thousand Galaxies provides fascinating

     explanations about the content of the universe.

10. When the Subject is a Verbal Phrase

     Sometimes an -ing or to + infinitive verb form is used as a

noun.  A phrase containing one of these forms may appear as the

subject of a sentence.  In these cases, the subject is always

singular.

     Learning how to do something well takes practice and

     determination.

     To see is to believe.

HUNTER COLLEGE READING/WRITING CENTER
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS
The Verb System: Subject-Verb Agreement

     Subject-verb agreement refers to a change in the form of a

verb depending on its subject. The subject of a verb may be

singular or plural and it may be first-person (I, we) second-person

(you [singular], you [plural]), or third-person (he/she/it, they).

     In English a verb changes form only when its subject is third-

person singular (he/she/it) and only in the present tense. The

following chart illustrates this rule:

           Present                                Past

   singular       plural                singular          plural     

   I walk          We walk             I walked          We walked

   You walk        You walk            You walked        You walked

   He/she walks    They walk           He/She walked     They walked 

   It walks                            It walked         

      The rule for subject-verb agreement is that in the present

tense, a verb with a third-person singular subject must always end

in -s.  As you can see, the past tense form is the same regardless

of its subject.

     A third-person singular subject is any person or thing that

can be replaced with one of the pronouns he, she, or it.

      Nancy Colon [she] is going to lead a march on the           

      White House. The rest of the group [it] will follow         

      her. The rally [it] is scheduled for 1:15 PM. Some          

      marchers [they] may arrive early. They should wait for      

      the rest of the group before raising their placards. In     

      fact, no one [he/she] should raise a placard, sign, or      

      banner until the entire group [it] is assembled on the lawn. 

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

     There are several sentence constructions that may make it

difficult for you to determine whether the main verb should have an

-s  ending.

1. When Words Separate the Subject from Its Verb

     Words that come between a subject and its verb do not affect

the number (singular or plural) of the subject. You must determine

which word is the sentence's subject and then use it to decide

whether the verb needs an -s  ending.

     The color  of the stage setting seems drab.

     The colors of the stage setting seem drab.

      A computer  with a variety of memory chips serves a special 

      purpose.

      Computers  with a variety of memory chips serve a special   

      purpose.

     Sometimes words that come between a subject and its verb may

contain a complete clause with a subject and verb of its own.  Most

often this will be a relative clause, beginning with who, which,

that or, less often, where or when.  This can be confusing because

it's hard to tell which verb goes with which subject.  Remember, a

subject and verb need only agree when they are in the same clause.

     A woman who has a career and a family has very little time

     for herself.       

     Relative pronouns may be either singular or plural, depending

on what noun they refer to.  Therefore the verb of a relative

clause must agree with the noun that it is referring to.

     A woman who has a career can still be a good mother.

     Women who have careers sometimes wait to have children.

     Be particularly careful editing subject-verb agreement when

the words that separate a singular subject from its verb sound like

they are making the subject plural. These words include expressions

such as in addition to, as well as, including, and together with.

These expressions do not function like the word and. In other

words, they do not make the subject plural even though they sound

like they do.

     A microcomputer, as well as a mainframe, uses silicon chips.

     A microcomputer and a mainframe use silicon chips.

     The processing unit, together with all of its types of memory, 

     forms the heart of the machine.

     The processing unit and the various types of memory form the 

     heart of the machine.

     The memory, including the ROM and RAM, performs the computer's 

     operations.

     The memory unit and the ROM and RAM perform the computer's   

     operations.

2. When the Subject Comes after Its Verb

     In some sentences, you may reverse the order of a subject and

its verb in order to achieve an interesting effect. In other

sentences, you may want to begin with the words There or Here.

These sentence openers move the true subject to a position after

its verb. When you are editing your verbs, make sure that you check

these sentences very carefully to find the subject and to determine

the correct form of the verb.

     At the end of the list is the divorced man.

     At the end of the list are divorced men.

     There is one significant reason why men remarry.

     There are many reasons why men remarry.

     However, remember that when you write a sentence that begins

with the word it you must always use the singular form of the main

verb (which usually ends in -s).

     It seems that women have the greatest difficulty remarrying.

     It does not mean that men do not have any problems.

     It appears that men have a greater tendency to avoid         

     commitment than do women.

3. When Two or More Subjects are Joined by Or or Nor

     When two or more subjects in a sentence are joined by or or

nor, the verb form is usually determined by the subject that is

closest to the verb.

     Neither that woman nor her friends are unfulfilled.

     Neither those women nor this one is unfulfilled.

     It is true that a career or children affect a woman's        

     marriageability.

     It is true that children or a career affects a woman's       

     marriageability.

4. When the Subject is a Singular Pronoun

     When used as a subject, the following pronouns are always

considered singular and need verbs with -s endings on them in the

present tense: each, either, neither, every, everybody, everyone,

everything, anybody, anyone, anything, somebody, someone,

something, nobody, no one, nothing.

     Everything contributes to the problem.

     Someone who was abused as a child is likely to victimize his

     or her own children.

     Nobody who deals with the problem has all of the answers.

     In terms of subject-verb agreement, the most troublesome

pronouns on the list above are everybody, everyone, either,

neither, every, and each. Everybody and everyone sound like groups

but grammatically they behave like singular subjects.

     Everybody has to be concerned about family violence.

     Everyone who deals with families sees these problems.

Either, neither, each, and every are always singular subjects

unless they are used with or or nor.

     Neither is going to explode soon.

     Either his sister or his parents are going to explode soon.

     Each family member has control over his/her aggression.

5. When Words Separate a Singular Pronoun Subject from Its Verb

     When a singular pronoun, such as either, neither, each, or 

every is separated from its verb by other words, it is easy to get

confused about the form of the verb. Remember that words that come

between a subject and its verb do not affect the number of the

subject or the form of the verb.

       Either of the parents is going to explode soon.

       Neither parent is in control.

       Each of the family members has to control his or her       

       aggression.

     Each and every cause subject-verb agreement confusion when

they are separated from their verbs by the phrase of them or by two

nouns joined by and.

       Each of them seems to be prone to violence.

       Each of their parents has a repressed personality.

       Every father and mother has to be careful.

     The pronouns some, none, any, and most can be either singular

or plural subjects depending upon the words that follow them.  For

example, some can mean "more than one," in which case the subject

is plural, or it can mean "a part of one," in which case the

subject is singular.

       Some of the families studied commit emotional abuse.

       Some of the problem is caused by television.

       Most of the family members remain silent about it.

       Most of the information comes from their neighbors.

6. When the Subject is a Collective Noun

     A collective noun is the name of a group that usually

functions like a single unit. Some examples include family, class, 

audience, crowd, committee, team, jury, orchestra and group. If you

are referring to the group as a single unit, then the noun is a

singular subject (and needs an -s  ending on its verb).  If you are

referring to the individual members of the group, then the noun is

a plural subject.

     The team of scientists monitors the Milky Way.

     The team of scientists disagree about those stars.

     This group of stars is known as the Andromeda Galaxy.

     That group of stars have separated to form new galaxies.

     There is one collective noun that does function like the

others listed above: the word number. When it is used in the phrase

the number of, it is always a singular subject, and when it is used

in the phrase a number of, it is always a plural subject.

     A number of galaxies are shaped like disks.

     The number of disk-shaped galaxies is growing.

7. When the Subject is a Quantity

     Like collective nouns, words that state a quantity or an

amount usually function like singular subjects, but they can

function like plural subjects when they refer to a part of

something, not the whole thing.  Usually in this case, the quantity

is followed by the word of.  Words of quantity include amounts of

time, money, height, length, width, space, and weight.

     One hundred thousand light years is an extremely long time.

     Three million dollars is the cost of the typical telescope.

     Two-thirds of the galaxies are elliptical in shape.

8. When the Subject Looks Plural But is Singular in

Meaning

     There are many subjects that look plural (in other words, that

end in -s) but are singular in meaning. These include the names of

school subjects--mathematics, linguistics, physics, economics, 

civics--and the names of some diseases--measles, mumps, AIDS, and

herpes. They also include miscellaneous words like politics and

news.

     Physics is the study of vector and scalar quantities.

     Herpes is now impossible to cure.

     The news about spiral galaxies seems unbelievable.

     Mumps makes one's cheeks hurt and causes swelling and fever.

9. When the Subject is a Title

     Even when a title is plural (like The New York Times), it

functions like a singular subject, and it needs an -s ending on its

verb.

     The Hales Observatories tracks comets and meteors.

     Principles of Astronomy explains the rotations of that galaxy.

     One Hundred Thousand Galaxies provides fascinating

     explanations about the content of the universe.

10. When the Subject is a Verbal Phrase

     Sometimes an -ing or to + infinitive verb form is used as a

noun.  A phrase containing one of these forms may appear as the

subject of a sentence.  In these cases, the subject is always

singular.

     Learning how to do something well takes practice and

     determination.

     To see is to believe.

speeches

A.D.S., After-Dinner Speaking

1. Subject. The student chooses his/her own subject and develops an original speech. "Original" mean "not copied, reproduced, or translated; novel, fresh; not borrowed from some other source."
2. General Purpose. To entertain.
3. Nature.
1. The speech should have an under tone of seriousness.
2. The speech should not be:
• A series of unrelated jokes.
• A skit or vaudeville performance.
• Dependent upon impersonation, although character suggestions and use of dialect in telling jokes or stories is permissible.
• A speech that is "acted out."
3. Humor must always be in good taste. Offensive humor and materials shall not be permitted.
4. Length The speech shall be no more than six (6) minutes in length with 30 seconds of grace allowed. If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption. Time signals shall be given at the speaker's request.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
   After-dinner Speaking Finals shall not be timed.
5. Preparation and Notes. The speech is prepared in advance. No notes are permitted and no promptings are allowed during the delivery of the speech.
6. Changing Speeches. The speech used at the District Tournament must also be used at the State Tournament.
7. Manuscripts. A copy of the speech must be given to the District Director at the time of the District Tournament. Manuscripts of the qualifying District winners (and alternates) must then be presented to the State Tournament Director at the time of registration for the State Tournament.

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Dual Interpretation

1. Length Contestants shall speak no more than ten (10) minutes including the introduction and reading. Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. If laughter delays the speakers, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Time signals will be given at the speakers' request.
   No contestant may be penalized if a stopwatch was not used for timing.
2. Introduction. Contestants shall appropriately introduction their readings. The introduction should be shared and memorized.
3. Presentation. Dual Interpretation is a presentation by two speakers both of whom should face the audience. The material shall be memorized.
4. Changing Readings. Materials presented at the District Tournament must also be presented at the State Tournament.
5. Materials. The materials shall be cuttings from published, printed novels, short stories, play or narrative poetry. Adaptation may be made for the purpose of continuity only.
   Materials may be humorous and/or serious. Only one division shall exist in Dual Interpretation.
6. Re-use. No speaker may use a cutting from the same source that the speaker used in any contest previous to the current school year.
7. Overlap. Students may not use the same material, or cuttings from the same source, in Dual Interpretation and any other interpretation event.
8. Instructions to the Judges. The Responsibility of the speaker is to entertain the audience with the material used. The speakers should suggest the characters, moods, and changes of situation largely through their voices. Characterizations should be confined to facial expressions, postures, and character placement. Body movement should be limited. This is a contest for the interpretation of a play, a cutting from a play, narrative poetry or prose. This is not a contest in acting.

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Expository Speaking

1. Subject. The speaker is responsible for choosing an appropriate subject and may not use more than 100 quoted words including all short words such as "a," "an," "the," etc.
2. General Purpose. The basic purpose of the speech is to inform.
3. Nature. Argumentative, persuasive, or entertaining material may be used but only to illustrate, enliven, or clarify the information. If the emphasis is on any or all of these and information serves to develop them, the speech shall be considered to fall outside of the expository purpose. Materials should be represented in a logical manner in order to maintain a high level of interest by the listener.
4. Delivery. There should be an absence of marked defects in the mechanics of speech - poise, use and quality of voice, enunciation, fluency, bodily expressiveness. These factors should contribute to the holding of the listeners' interest.
5. Length. Eight (8) minutes maximum with 30 seconds of grace is allowed. Time signals will be given at the speakers' request.
   If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
6. Preparation and Notes. The speech is to be prepared in advance. No notes or manuscripts shall be allowed.
7. Visual Aids. These may not be in the central focus of the speech but must be used only to supplement the exposition. Animated visual aids, which are to be interpreted as any projected images, are prohibited.
8. Changing Speeches. The speech used at the District Tournament must also be used at the State Tournament.
9. Manuscripts. A copy of the speech, including the bibliography, must be available if requested by the tournament director at the District or State Tournament. Failure to provide a manuscript if requested may be used as a basis for disqualification from the tournament.

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Extemporaneous Speaking

1. Topic. Each years topic is stated on page one of the Coaches handbook.
2. Drawing of Subtopics. One hour before speaking time, each contestant shall draw three topics, one of which shall be chosen by the speaker.
3. Preparation. Contestants may use books, magazines, or notes during the preparation period, but may not confer with any other person about the topic. An extemp preparation room shall be available at State Tournaments.
4. Length. A maximum of seven (7) minutes shall be allowed for each speech with 30 seconds of grace. A speaker may be disqualified if he speaks more then 7-½ minutes. A timekeeper will use cards or hand signals showing the time left in the speech: 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, ½, 0.
   If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
5. Notes. No notes may be used during the delivery, and no prompting are allowed.
6. District Topics. District Directors shall ask coaches to submit a certain number of topics to be used at the District Tournament.

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Impromptu Speaking

1. Topic Area. Each years topic area is stated on page one of the Coaches handbook.
2. Procedures of the Contest.
1. Each contestant shall draw a topic slip.
2. Contestants may read aloud the topic chosen or may incorporate the topic statement into the speech.
3. Contestants shall begin to speak immediately without time for preparation.
4. Notes, materials, or previously prepared speech outlines shall not be allowed as the contestant speaks.
5. Contestants are not allowed to hear the other speakers before them. After a contestant has spoken, however, he/she may remain in the room to hear the speakers who follow.
3. Length. Five (5) minutes with a 30 second period of grace. A timekeeper shall use cards or hand signals showing the time left in the speech: 4, 3, 2, 1, ½, 0.
   If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
4. District Topics. District Directors shall ask coaches to submit a certain number of topics to be used at the District Tournament.

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Memorized Humorous

1. Length. Contestants shall speak no more than ten (10) minutes with no grace period. If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Time signals will be given at the speakers' request.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
2. Introduction. Each speaker shall appropriately introduce the material. The title and author of the selection must be given.
3. Presentation. The materials are to be memorized. Physical objects, props or costumes are not allowed.
4. Changing Material. Materials given at the District Tournament must be given at the State Tournament.
5. Materials. They shall be cuttings from published, printed novels, short stories, plays or poetry. Adaptations may be made for the purpose of continuity only. Selections may be chosen from any good literature without regard to publication date. Recordings are not allowed.
6. Re-use. No student may use a cutting from the same source which he used in any contest previous to the current school year.
7. Overlap. Students may not use the same material, or cuttings from the same source, in Humorous Reading and Memorized Humorous.
8. Suggestions to the Judges. The responsibility of the speaker is to entertain the audience with the material used. Character portrayal should be confined to facial expression, gestures, postures, and character placement. Limited movement is allowed. This is not a solo acting contest.

Memorized Serious

1. Length. Contestants shall speak no more than ten (10) minutes with no grace period. If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Time signals will be given at the speakers' request.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
2. Introduction. Each speaker shall appropriately introduce the material. The title and author of the selection must be given.
3. Presentation. The materials are to be memorized. Physical objects, props or costumes are not allowed.
4. Changing Material. Materials given at the District Tournament must be given at the State Tournament.
5. Material. They shall be cuttings from published, printed novels, short stories, plays or poetry. Adaptations may be made for the purpose of continuity only. Selections may be chosen from any good literature without regard to publication date. Recordings are not allowed.
6. Re-use. No speaker may use a cutting from the same source which he used in any contest previous to the current school year.
7. Overlap. Students may not use the same material, or cuttings from the same source, in traditional Serious Reading and Memorized Serious.

Suggestions to the Judges. The responsibility of the speaker is to entertain the audience with the material used. Character portrayal should be confined to facial expression, gestures, postures, and character placement. Limited movement is

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Oratory

1. Subject. No limitation is placed on subject matter, other than that it be significant and worthy. The composition is to be the student's original work. No more than one hundred and fifty quoted words including all short words such as "a," "an," "the," etc., may be used.
2. Length. Each speech is limited to ten (10) minutes presentation time with no grace period.
   Time signals will be given at the speakers' request.
   If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
3. Manuscript. A copy of the speech, including the bibliography, must be available if requested by the tournament director at the District of State Tournament. Failure to provide a manuscript if requested may be used as a basis for disqualification from the tournament.
4. Memorization. Verbatim memorization is optional. However, departures from the manuscript may not add to the length of the speech.
5. Changing Speeches. The oration used in the District Tournament must be used in the State Tournament.
6. Notes. No notes are permitted and no prompting are allowed.
7. Instructions to the Judges. In this contest, the students have chosen their own subjects, written their speeches and committee them to memory. They are, however, permitted to deviate from the original script in order to make a better adjustment to the speaking situation. Students are expected to choose a significant subject. They may discuss a problem of social, economical, moral, or political importance, or they may praise (eulogize) a person or idea, or inveigh against an immoral practice, law, group, or person. Ordinarily, the student combines argument with emotional appeal. Speakers employ materials and language that are graphic, striking, sometimes dramatic - but always with the desire to put the speaker's idea across, not to call attention to the speaker's techniques. The oration is a speech, not a dramatic reading.

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Poetry Reading

1. Theme. Contestants are to choose poems which are related to and organized around a central theme.
   Example of Theme. A central or unifying theme may be a poet, statesman, philanthropist, an idea, a philosophy, nature, an element of nature, a community, trees, death, etc. For example, using the theme of love, cutting may be taken from Robert Burns' "Mary Morrison," William Wordsworth's "She Was a Phantom of Delight," and Lord Byron's "When We Two Parted," or using the theme of nature's changing seasons; cuttings might be taken from Robert Bridges' "London Snow," Swinburne's "Autumn in Cornwall." and Robert Frost's "Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening." Humorous poetry may be used.
2. Poems. No fewer than three poems or cuttings from three poems are to be used, and at least three poems are to be not less than eight lines. Judges should check the manuscripts to enforce this rule.
3. Introductions. Each poem should be appropriately introduced in order to give setting (if necessary), to relate it to the central theme, and to establish the proper mood for the audience. Introductions should be memorized or delivered extemporaneously.
4. Length. Contestants are allowed a speaking time of no more than eight (8) minutes with 30 seconds of grace. This includes the introduction, poetry reading, and necessary transitions.
   Time signals will be given at the speakers' request.
   If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
5. Presentation. Students must read from a manuscript or from the printed page. Continued practice during the time of preparation may result in memorization of some passages. The aim of the reader, however, should not be complete memorization. Rather frequent references must be made to the manuscript during presentation of the materials. While standing primarily in one place, contestants may use limited gestures and facial, verbal and vocal expression.
6. Materials - Sources. Contestants are urged to select material within their grasp, their ability to understand and to interpret, but materials which are good literature. Anthologies of modern poetry, British or American, as well as high school literature books should prove helpful. Original work of the student is encouraged.
7. Changing Reading. Poetry prepared for and used at the District Tournament must also be used at the State Tournament.

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Prose Reading

1. Length. Contestants shall speak no more than eight (8) minutes with a 30 second period of grace including the introduction and reading. If laughter delays the speaker, the timekeeper shall make allowance by stopping the watch at the beginning and starting it at the end of each interruption.
   Time signals will be given at the speakers' request.
   Contestants who violate the time limit may receive a lower rank. No contestant may be penalized if stopwatch was not used for timing.
2. Introduction. Each reader shall appropriately introduce the reading. Introductions should be memorized or delivered extemporaneously.
3. Presentation. The materials are to be read from a manuscript or printed page. Continued practice during the time of preparation may result in memorization of some passages. The aim of the reader, however, should not be complete memorization. Rather frequent references must be made to the manuscript during the presentation of the materials. Contestants may use limited gestures while standing in one place and freely using facial, verbal and vocal expression. Contestants may use transition steps during introductions and transitions, which should be presented in an extemporaneous manner making use of appropriate gestures and physical movements.
4. Changing Readings. Materials read at the District Tournament must also be read at the State Tournament.
5. Materials.
1. The materials shall be cuttings from published, printed short stories, novels or essays. No material may be presented from any work that is identified as a play/drama or poem.
2. Adaptation may be made for the purpose of continuity only. Selections may be chosen from any good literature without regard to publication date.
3. Both narration and dialogue are encouraged, but MORE THAN 50% OF THE WORDS IN THE SELECTION MUST BE NARRATION.
6. Re-Use. No speaker may use a cutting from the same source that the speaker used in any contest previous to the current school year.
7. Overlap. Students may not use the same material, or cuttings from the same source, in Prose Reading and any other interpretation event.
8. Instructions to the Judges. This is a contest for the interpretation of a cutting from a published, printed short story, novel or essay. No speaker shall be penalized for a lack of dialogue in his or her presentation. The speaker should suggest the characters, moods, and changes of situation largely though his voice. Characterizations should be confined to facial expressions, postures, and character placement, but there should be no movement of the entire body.
   Special Note. Judges should expect that some readers, from constant practice of their selection, may be able to present potions from memory. Speakers are not to be penalized for this, as long as they refer rather frequently to their manuscripts or to the printed page in front of them.

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Radio Commentary

1. Subject. The speech shall be an original news commentary dealing with current events of the current school year.
2. Scripts. The script is to be an analysis of news, not simply a running synopsis of news. It is to be original and written by the contestant. A copy of the manuscript, including the bibliography, must be available if requested by the tournament director at the District or State Tournament. Failure to provide a manuscript if requested may be used as a basis for disqualification from the tournament.
3. Quoted Material. The speaker may use no more than seventy-five quoted words including all short words such as "a," "an," "the," etc.
4. Length. The script should be timed to end between 4:45 and 5:15 minutes. Any speaker ending before 4:45 or after 5:15 minutes shall be disqualified.
   Time signals shall be given to the speaker indicating the amount of time the speaker has used, not time left. The cards will read : 1, 2, 3, 4, 4:45, 5, 5:15.
   No contestant may be disqualified if a stopwatch was not used for timing.
5. Procedure. Contestants shall be out of sight of the judges.
   The script is to be read from a manuscript or printed page, and not committed to memory. It is not to be acted nor highly dramatized.
6. Changing Speeches. The radio speech used at the District Tournament must also be used at the State Tournament.
7. Bibliography. The script must include a bibliography of no fewer than two sources.