Thursday, December 3, 2009

the writing process

Whether you know it or not, there’s a process to writing – which many writers follow naturally. If you’re just getting started as a writer, though, or if you always find it a struggle to produce an essay, short story or blog, following the writing process will help.
I’m going to explain what each stage of the writing process involves, and I’ll offer some tips for each section that will help out if you’re still feeling stuck!
1. Prewriting
Have you ever sat staring at a blank piece of paper or a blank document on your computer screen? You might have skipped the vital first stage of the writing process: prewriting. This covers everything you do before starting your rough draft. As a minimum, prewriting means coming up with an idea!
Ideas and Inspiration
Ideas are all around you. If you want to write but you don’t have any ideas, try:
• Using a writing prompt to get you started.
• Writing about incidents from your daily life, or childhood.
• Keeping a notebook of ideas – jotting down those thoughts that occur throughout the day.
• Creating a vivid character, and then writing about him/her.
See also How to Generate Hundreds of Writing Ideas.
Tip: Once you have an idea, you need to expand on it. Don’t make the mistake of jumping straight into your writing – you’ll end up with a badly structured piece.
Building on Your Idea
These are a couple of popular methods you can use to add flesh to the bones of your idea:
• Free writing: Open a new document or start a new page, and write everything that comes into your head about your chosen topic. Don’t stop to edit, even if you make mistakes.
• Brainstorming: Write the idea or topic in the center of your page. Jot down ideas that arise from it – sub-topics or directions you could take with the article.
Once you’ve done one or both of these, you need to select what’s going into your first draft.
Planning and Structure
Some pieces of writing will require more planning than others. Typically, longer pieces and academic papers need a lot of thought at this stage.
First, decide which ideas you’ll use. During your free writing and brainstorming, you’ll have come up with lots of thoughts. Some belong in this piece of writing: others can be kept for another time.
Then, decide how to order those ideas. Try to have a logical progression. Sometimes, your topic will make this easy: in this article, for instance, it made sense to take each step of the writing process in order. For a short story, try the eight-point story arc.
2. Writing
Sit down with your plan beside you, and start your first draft (also known as the rough draft or rough copy). At this stage, don’t think about word-count, grammar, spelling and punctuation. Don’t worry if you’ve gone off-topic, or if some sections of your plan don’t fit too well. Just keep writing!
If you’re a new writer, you might be surprised that professional authors go through multiple drafts before they’re happy with their work. This is a normal part of the writing process – no-one gets it right first time.
Some things that many writers find helpful when working on the first draft include:
• Setting aside at least thirty minutes to concentrate: it’s hard to establish a writing flow if you’re just snatching a few minutes here and there.
• Going somewhere without interruptions: a library or coffee shop can work well, if you don’t have anywhere quiet to write at home.
• Switching off distracting programs: if you write your first draft onto a computer, you might find that turning off your Internet connection does wonders for your concentration levels! When I’m writing fiction, I like to use the free program Dark Room (you can find more about it on our collection of writing software).
You might write several drafts, especially if you’re working on fiction. Your subsequent drafts will probably merge elements of the writing stage and the revising stage.
Tip: Writing requires concentration and energy. If you’re a new writer, don’t try to write for hours without stopping. Instead, give yourself a time limit (like thirty minutes) to really focus – without checking your email!
3. Revising
Revising your work is about making “big picture” changes. You might remove whole sections, rewrite entire paragraphs, and add in information which you’ve realized the reader will need. Everyone needs to revise – even talented writers.
The revision stage is sometimes summed up with the A.R.R.R. (Adding, Rearranging, Removing, Replacing) approach:
Adding
What else does the reader need to know? If you haven’t met the required word-count, what areas could you expand on? This is a good point to go back to your prewriting notes – look for ideas which you didn’t use.
Rearranging
Even when you’ve planned your piece, sections may need rearranging. Perhaps as you wrote your essay, you found that the argument would flow better if you reordered your paragraphs. Maybe you’ve written a short story that drags in the middle but packs in too much at the end.
Removing
Sometimes, one of your ideas doesn’t work out. Perhaps you’ve gone over the word count, and you need to take out a few paragraphs. Maybe that funny story doesn’t really fit with the rest of your article.
Replacing
Would more vivid details help bring your piece to life? Do you need to look for stronger examples and quotations to support your argument? If a particular paragraph isn’t working, try rewriting it.
Tip: If you’re not sure what’s working and what isn’t, show your writing to someone else. This might be a writers’ circle, or just a friend who’s good with words. Ask them for feedback. It’s best if you can show your work to several people, so that you can get more than one opinion.
4. Editing
The editing stage is distinct from revision, and needs to be done after revising. Editing involves the close-up view of individual sentences and words. It needs to be done after you’ve made revisions on a big scale: or else you could agonize over a perfect sentence, only to end up cutting that whole paragraph from your piece.
When editing, go through your piece line by line, and make sure that each sentence, phrase and word is as strong as possible. Some things to check for are:
• Have you used the same word too many times in one sentence or paragraph? Use a thesaurus to find alternatives.
• Are any of your sentences hard to understand? Rewrite them to make your thoughts clear.
• Which words could you cut to make a sentence stronger? Words like “just” “quite”, “very”, “really” and “generally” can often be removed.
• Are your sentences grammatically correct? Keep a careful look out for problems like subject-verb agreement and staying consistent in your use of the past, present or future tense.
• Is everything spelt correctly? Don’t trust your spell-checker – it won’t pick up every mistake. Proofread as many times as necessary.
• Have you used punctuation marks correctly? Commas often cause difficulties. You might want to check out the Daily Writing Tips articles on punctuation.
Tip: Print out your work and edit on paper. Many writers find it easier to spot mistakes this way.
5. Publishing
The final step of the writing process is publishing. This means different things depending on the piece you’re working on.
Bloggers need to upload, format and post their piece of completed work.
Students need to produce a final copy of their work, in the correct format. This often means adding a bibliography, ensuring that citations are correct, and adding details such as your student reference number.
Journalists need to submit their piece (usually called “copy”) to an editor. Again, there will be a certain format for this.
Fiction writers may be sending their story to a magazine or competition. Check guidelines carefully, and make sure you follow them. If you’ve written a novel, look for an agent who represents your genre. (There are books like Writer’s Market, published each year, which can help you with this.)
Tip: Your piece of writing might never be published. That’s okay – many bestselling authors wrote lots of stories or articles before they got their first piece published. Nothing that you write is wasted, because it all contributes to your growth as a writer.
Conclusion
The five stages of the writing process are a framework for writing well and easily. You might want to bookmark this post so that you can come back to it each time you start on a new article, blog post, essay or story: use it as a checklist to help you.
If you have any tips about the writing process, or if you want to share your experiences, tell us in the comments!

Monday, June 29, 2009

PGS Lessons

1. Protocol
a. The forms of ceremony and etiquette observed by diplomats and heads of state.
b. A code of correct conduct: safety protocols; academic protocol.
2. The first copy of a treaty or other such document before its ratification.
3. A preliminary draft or record of a transaction.
4. The plan for a course of medical treatment or for a scientific experiment.
5. Computer Science A standard procedure for regulating data transmission between computers.
A standard operating procedure is a set of instructions having the force of a directive, covering those features of operations that lend themselves to a definite or standardized procedure without loss of effectiveness. Standard Operating Policies and Procedures can be effective catalysts to drive performance improvement and improving organizational results. [1] Every good quality system is based on its standard operating procedures (SOPs).
• “Leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who choose to follow”. (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).
• “Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal”. (Northouse, 2004)
• “Leadership is the influencing process of leaders and followers to achieve organizational objectives through changes”. (Lussier & Achua, 2004)
• “Leadership is the behavior of an individual… directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal”. (Hemphill & Coons, 1957)
• “Leadership is the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the organization” (D.Katz & Kahn, 1978)
• “Leadership is the process of incluencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement” (Rauch & Behling, 1984)
• “Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose” (Jacobs & Jacques, 1990)
• “Leadership is the ability to step outside the culture… to start evolutionary change processes that are more adaptive” (E.H. Schein, 1992)
• “Leadership is the process of making sense of waht people are doing together so that people will understand and be committed” (Drath & Palus, 1994)
• “Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can be accomplished” (Richards & Engle, 1986)
• “Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization…” (House et al., 1999)
• “Leadership is the ability of developing and communicating a vision to a group of people that will make that vision true” (Kenneth Valenzuela, 2007) <– This is mine.


The Basics of Team Building
A Basic Definition
To examine this in more depth, we need to start with a basic definition.
Some people define a team as being "the whole is greater than the sum of its' parts". But this isn't the right definition; it is a feature of good teams. 'Whole > sum' shows that they are working well together - but there are some teams whose collective performance falls short of what you might expect given the quality of individuals. The Apollo Syndrome is a good example of this - where highly intelligent people often performs worse than teams made of up 'less-able' members.
Some people define a team as being the people who report to the same boss. This can be misleading. In a well-designed organizational structure, people reporting to one boss do often form 'teams'. But when designing organizational hierarchies there are often compromises made because of pay structures or the need to have traditional reporting lines.
Whislt a team is a group of people, a group is not necessarily a team. Rather, a team is a group of people working together towards a common goal. .
Groups
If a team is a group of people working towards a common goal, 'team building' is the process of enabling that group of people to reach their goal. It is therefore a management issue, and the most effective form of team building is that undertaken as a form of management consultancy, rather than as pure training (though there is a role for training within an overall programme).
In its simplest terms, the stages involved in team building are:
• To clarify the collective goals
• To identify those inhibitors that prevent them from reaching their goals and remove them
• To put in place enablers that assist them
• To measure and monitor progress, to ensure the goals are achieved
Traditional techniques often address the inhibitors to collective performance: relationships, communication, etc.. However, if a group is only a group, then the benefits of such techniques may be limited. At best, there may be no need to resolve relationship problems; at worst it can be a waste of time and detract the people involved from achieving their individual goals.
Relationship problems
If there are problems between people working in a group, then this can have a negative impact on their individual performance. However, traditional techniques are not the solution.
The stress in a relationship between two people is governed by the formula:
(proximity of the two people) x (importance they succeed together)
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(compatibility of their personalities)
In a group, the 'importance' is low. However, traditional techniques implicitly try make the importance score higher than it need be. This makes the stress score worse, because you are forcing people to work well together when they don't need to.
Also, traditional techniques sometimes tries to address the incompatibilities of the personalities involved, eg: on a personality workshop. Whilst this can be done, it is hard work and needs both parties to be committed to it. In a working group, the motivation for such difficult work is unlikely to be there - though, if they are willing to do it for personal reasons, then a personality workshop can have some effect.
However, to reduce relationship stress in a group, it is better to focus on the factor that is easiest to change: proximity. If they are only a group, then putting some distance between them (physically or by managing the boundaries between their work) will achieve a satisfactory result, without having to invest a lot of time.
Summary
• A team is a group of people working towards a common goal
• Team building is a process of enabling them to achieve that goal
• If they are only a group, then traditional techniques can be a waste of time/money or even counter-productive
• There may be better ways to resolve problems in groups: eg: putting distance between people who don't get on or, if they are both willing, building some understanding of personality differences.
Work ethic is a set of values based on hard work and diligence. It is also a belief in the moral benefit of work and its ability to enhance character.
Employee feedback is very essential for an organization's success. It will tell and keep the managers updated about the organization's strengths and weaknesses. Thus they can work upon them and try to eliminate those weaknesses. It will help them in carrying SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis in an organization, thus, contributing to organization's growth. Employee feedback should be encouraged by the managers as it tells them how motivated and satisfied the employees are in an organization. It tells the managers the reactions of employees to the company's policies. The employees should be honest enough in giving their views about a particular manager. They should be assured that their suggestions would be taken into consideration. They shouldn't be hesitant in giving their feedback.
Employees are a mediator between the managers and the customers. They can keep a company informed about customer satisfaction and customer's traits. They can give suggestions on improvement of goods and services, on what type of training sessions should be conducted in an organization for the employees, on how can their working environment be improved, on the perks and benefits which should be given to keep employees motivated. The employees can tell the managers about what they feel about the tasks assigned to them. They can make managers understand that lack of appreciation by managers can lead to less productivity and thus, to slow growth of organization. If the employees feel overburdened with work assigned to them, they can honestly discuss this with their superiors so that their work can be distributed and shared if required. Employee feedback can help measure the outcome of training sessions, the requirements of customers, quality improvement in an organization, etc.
Thus, the managers should encourage employees to give feedback and take it into consideration for the growth and smooth running of their organization.
Employee feedback is very essential for success of an organization.


The Importance of Workplace Environment
An employee’s workplace environment is a key determinant of their level of productivity. How well the workplace engages an employee impacts their level of motivation to perform. This then influences that employee’s:
• error rate
• level of innovation
• collaboration with other employees
• absenteeism
and, ultimately, how long they stay in the job.
The most important of these workplace environment factors that either lead to engagement or disengagement are shown in the following diagram. A close consideration of each of these factors is also very useful in ensuring that employees apply the skills they learn during training programs once they return to their workplace. Tending to the structural and interpersonal aspects of each of these factors enables employees to apply the required skills in a consistent and habitual way.
Figure 1 – Workplace factors affecting employee performance


Workplace Performance Factors
What does each of these factors mean? The following is a brief introduction.
Goal-setting
Employees are involved in setting meaningful goals and performance measures for their work. This can be done informally between the employee and their immediate supervisor or as part of an organization’s formal performance management process. The key here is that each employee is actively engaged in the goal-setting process and takes ownership of the final agreed goals and measures.
Performance feedback
Information on how the employee is performing is fed back regularly to employees. This consists of both positive feedback on what the employee is doing right as well as feedback on what requires improvement. The feedback is objective and delivered with the appropriate interpersonal and conflict resolution skills and can be a mix of both informal feedback and feedback delivered as part of a formal performance management cycle.
Role congruity
The role that the employee is required to perform is consistent with their expectations on joining the organization and any subsequent training. The organization’s role expectations are typically reflected in formal documents, such as Job Descriptions and Role Specifications. These expectations are consistent with tasks allocated by the employee’s immediate supervisor.

Defined processes
The organization constrains the variability of how work is actually performed through documenting processes and communicating such expectations to employees. The organization verifies on a regular or random basis that the work is actually performed in the way required.
Workplace incentives
The organization has determined what motivates its employees and has set up formal and informal structures for rewarding employees that behave in the way required. Rewards may consist of a mix of internal rewards, such as challenging assignments, and external rewards, such as higher compensation and peer recognition.
Supervisor support
Immediate supervisors act as advocates for employees, gathering and distributing the resources needed by employees in order for them to be able to do a good job and providing positive encouragement for a job well done. Supervisors display the interpersonal skills required to engage employees and enhance their self-confidence.
Mentoring/coaching
Skilled and respected people are available to employees to help them perform better in their current role and to assist them develop further into a future role. Mentors and coaches may be internal to an organization or external. Either way, they possess the necessary facilitation skills to assist employees develop and apply new sills.
Opportunity to apply
Time and material resources are available to employees, enabling them to perform to the best of their ability. Individual workloads and organizational systems and processes do not hinder employees from applying established skills or from practicing newly learned skills.
Job aids
The work environment is set up so that templates, guides, models, checklists and other such workplace aids are readily available to help minimize error rates and customer dissatisfaction.

Paying close attention to the above workplace environment factors will heighten employee motivation to apply their skills and hence improve your workplace productivity.
The above factors are also important for getting the most out of your organizational change programs. For help in translating change initiatives into real organizational performance gains, check out our eBook Managing Change in the Workplace. << Click here to find out more.
Twelve Tips for Team Building: How to Build Successful Work Teams
• Competence: Does the team feel that it has the appropriate people participating? (As an example, in a process improvement, is each step of the process represented on the team?) Does the team feel that its members have the knowledge, skill and capability to address the issues for which the team was formed? If not, does the team have access to the help it needs? Does the team feel it has the resources, strategies and support needed to accomplish its mission?
• Charter: Has the team taken its assigned area of responsibility and designed its own mission, vision and strategies to accomplish the mission. Has the team defined and communicated its goals; its anticipated outcomes and contributions; its timelines; and how it will measure both the outcomes of its work and the process the team followed to accomplish their task? Does the leadership team or other coordinating group support what the team has designed?
• Control: Does the team have enough freedom and empowerment to feel the ownership necessary to accomplish its charter? At the same time, do team members clearly understand their boundaries? How far may members go in pursuit of solutions? Are limitations (i.e. monetary and time resources) defined at the beginning of the project before the team experiences barriers and rework?

Is the team’s reporting relationship and accountability understood by all members of the organization? Has the organization defined the team’s authority? To make recommendations? To implement its plan? Is there a defined review process so both the team and the organization are consistently aligned in direction and purpose? Do team members hold each other accountable for project timelines, commitments and results? Does the organization have a plan to increase opportunities for self-management among organization members?
• Collaboration: Does the team understand team and group process? Do members understand the stages of group development? Are team members working together effectively interpersonally? Do all team members understand the roles and responsibilities of team members? team leaders? team recorders? Can the team approach problem solving, process improvement, goal setting and measurement jointly? Do team members cooperate to accomplish the team charter? Has the team established group norms or rules of conduct in areas such as conflict resolution, consensus decision making and meeting management? Is the team using an appropriate strategy to accomplish its action plan?
• Communication: Are team members clear about the priority of their tasks? Is there an established method for the teams to give feedback and receive honest performance feedback? Does the organization provide important business information regularly? Do the teams understand the complete context for their existence? Do team members communicate clearly and honestly with each other? Do team members bring diverse opinions to the table? Are necessary conflicts raised and addressed?

• Creative Innovation: Is the organization really interested in change? Does it value creative thinking, unique solutions, and new ideas? Does it reward people who take reasonable risks to make improvements? Or does it reward the people who fit in and maintain the status quo? Does it provide the training, education, Consequences: Do team members feel responsible and accountable for team achievements? Are rewards and recognition supplied when teams are successful? Is reasonable risk respected and encouraged in the organization? Do team members fear reprisal? Do team members spend their time finger pointing rather than resolving problems? Is the organization designing reward systems that recognize both team and individual performance? Is the organization planning to share gains and increased profitability with team and individual contributors? Can contributors see their impact on increased organization success?

• Coordination: Are teams coordinated by a central leadership team that assists the groups to obtain what they need for success? Have priorities and resource allocation been planned across departments? Do teams understand the concept of the internal customer—the next process, anyone to whom they provide a product or a service? Are cross-functional and multi-department teams common and working together effectively? Is the organization developing a customer-focused process-focused orientation and moving away from traditional departmental thinking?

• Cultural Change: Does the organization recognize that the team-based, collaborative, empowering, enabling organizational culture of the future is different than the traditional, hierarchical organization it may currently be? Is the organization planning to or in the process of changing how it rewards, recognizes, appraises, hires, develops, plans with, motivates and manages the people it employs?

Does the organization plan to use failures for learning and support reasonable risk? Does the organization recognize that the more it can change its climate to support teams, the more it will receive in pay back from the work of the teams?
Spend time and attention on each of these twelve tips to ensure your work teams contribute most effectively to your business success. Your team members will love you, your business will soar, and empowered people will "own" and be responsible for their work processes. Can your work life get any better than this?
• access to books and films, and field trips necessary to stimulate new thinking?



The Awesome Power of Goal Setting: Ten Tips for Triumph
The Goal Is Yours – You Own the Goal
Whether the goal is a promotion at work, a streamlined work process, a new customer, a published article, an exercise program or weight loss, the goal must be your goal. You are unlikely to achieve your manager’s goal, your spouse’s goal or the goal you think you “ought” to work on this year. Your goals must generate excitement when you ponder their accomplishment. You must believe there is something in it for you to accomplish them.
Sometimes, especially at work, if you perceive the end reward is worth the work, you will take on challenges in support of the organization’s goals. These goals might not be as close to your heart as your personal goals, but you work to achieve them for the good of the organization and your success there.
Here are three more tips that will help you experience awesome success in accomplishing your goals and living your resolutions.
Base Your Goals Firmly in Your Values
Hyrum Smith, the founder of Franklin Quest, later Franklin-Covey, Inc., developed a model for goal setting. Smith's "Success Triangle" puts governing values at the base of the goal setting process. Smith recommends that every goal is linked specifically to a governing value. For example, if diversity in the workforce is a value espoused by your organization, then at least one goal must further diversity. Every goal should be linked to a governing value.
Short-term, mid-term and long-term goals are then established based upon the solid foundation of your values. If the goal you set is congruent with and allows you to live your most important values, you are more likely to accomplish the goal.
According to Gene Donohue, of TopAchievement.com, set goals in all aspects of your life, to maintain your life balance. The balance also helps you accomplish goals as each aspect of your life is represented in your goals. You are less likely to experience warring priorities if every aspect of your life has a value-based goal. He suggests goals in these arenas.
• Family and Home
• Financial and Career
• Spiritual and Ethical
• Physical and Health
• Social and Cultural
• Mental and Educational
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From my Favorite Quotation Series:
"Until one is committed, there is hesitancy, the chance to draw back, always ineffectiveness. Concerning all acts of initiative and creation, there is one elementary truth the ignorance of which kills countless ideas and splendid plans: that the moment one definitely commits oneself, then providence moves too. All sorts of things occur to help one that would never otherwise have occurred. A whole stream of events issues from the decision, raising in ones favor all manner of unforeseen incidents, meetings and material assistance which no man could have dreamed would have come his way. I have learned a deep respect for one of Goethe's couplets: 'Whatever you can do, or dream you can, begin it! Boldness has genius, magic, and power in it.'"(Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe)
--W.H. Murray, of the Scottish Himalayan Expedition
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Believe You Can Accomplish the Goal
Each of us has a little voice in our head. It is the voice of our sub-conscious, judging self. On a daily basis, we engage in self-talk; we comment on each situation we encounter. We discuss events and plans in our minds. Our commentary is both positive and negative. Positive thoughts and planning support the accomplishment of our goals. Negative thoughts and comments undermine our self-esteem and self-confidence, and negatively impact our ability to accomplish our goals.
Listen to your voice. You can change its tone by believing in yourself and in your ability to accomplish your goals and resolutions. Use this unconscious critic to positively support your goal setting success.
If you are a manager, one of your more important tasks is to support the development of positive self-esteem by your staff members. Your positive outlook and belief in their ability to accomplish great goals fosters their increased self-esteem and self-confidence. This, in turn, magnifies their ability to accomplish more and contribute more to your business.
Paint a Vivid Outcome
Traditionally, goals were established around measurable outcomes. This works well when the outcomes are measurable. Don’t tie yourself to setting only measurable goals, however; you may find yourself concentrating on the trivial, because it is measurable, rather than on your most important outcomes. Sometimes the most important goals, the non-urgent, critical goals, are hard to measure.
“Explore alternatives for a business in the World Wide Web,” is tough to measure, whereas the steps, once you make a decision, are easy to measure. “Learn about new options and thinking around performance management,” is tough to measure in any significant way. The next step, “design a new appraisal system,” is easier to define and measure.
As you move up the management ranks, you may find more of your goals are harder to measure. The key measurable aspects of your job will likely be the results produced by your reporting staff.
With goals that are hard to measure, start with a picture in your mind, that you commit to paper, that describes the outcome you are seeking. Make the picture as vivid as you can. I have a published book in my mind, while I am still thinking about and exploring potential topics.
Here are six more tips that will help you experience awesome success in accomplishing your goals and living your resolutions.
Write Your Goals
Writing out your goal is your commitment to achieving the goal. Writing a goal is a powerful statement in comparison with half-formulated thoughts in the back of your mind. It is the conscious promise to yourself to pay attention to the accomplishment of the goal. Writing out potential action plans and due dates makes the goal even more powerful.
Share Your Goals With People Who Are Important to You
If you are certain your significant others will support the accomplishment of your goals, share them. Your manager is likely to support your goal accomplishment as your success is her success. Honestly assess the ability of family members, peers and friends to provide support. In close relationships, many different feelings, experiences and historical events are at play. If you don’t believe you will have whole-hearted support, keep the goals to yourself.
Check Goal Setting and Achievement Progress Regularly
One of the weaknesses of any annual appraisal system is the lack of frequency with which progress and success are measured and tracked. You are most likely to accomplish the goals you set if you review them daily as part of your normal planning process. (You do have a normal planning process, don’t you?)
Whether you use a paper planner or a hand held computer, you can enter your goals, and schedule daily and weekly actions that support their accomplishment. The discipline of the daily review is a powerful goal accomplishment tool.
Take Action to Identify and Eliminate Obstacles to Goal Setting Success
Simply tracking your goals daily is not enough. If you’re unhappy with your progress, you need to assess what is keeping you from accomplishing the goals. Ask yourself questions such as, “Is this goal really important?” (If not, why did you pledge to accomplish it; maybe it’s not important, or less important than other goals.)
”Are there specific obstacles you are experiencing which are interfering with your ability to accomplish the goal?” (In this case, make action plans to remove the obstacles or seek help from a co-worker, friend or family member.)
If you are not making progress on a particular goal, attempt to do a root cause analysis to determine why. Only by honestly analyzing your lack of progress can you determine steps to take to change this picture. In this era of the hand-held computer and PDA cell phones, picture your goals automatically forwarding for 365 days. Talk about a daily reminder about failure!
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From my Favorite Quotation Series:
Seven Habits Revisited
“Begin With the End In Mind is the endowment of imagination and conscience. If you are the programmer, write the program. Decide what you're going to do with the time, talent, and tools you have to work with: "Within my small circle of influence, I'm going to decide."
--Stephen R. Covey
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Reward Yourself and Celebrate Goal Accomplishment
Even the accomplishment of a minor goal is cause for celebration. Don’t depress yourself with thoughts about all you still have to do. Celebrate what you have done. Then move on to the next milestone.
Goals and New Year Resolutions Change
Periodically look at the goals you have set for this year. Are the goals still the right goals? Give yourself permission to change your goals and resolutions based on changing circumstances.
Don’t spend an entire year failing to achieve a particular goal. Your time is better spent on achievement than on beating yourself up for lack of progress. Maybe you made the goal too big; maybe you set too many goals. Do an honest assessment; change what needs to change periodically, and move on.
Paying attention to these ten guidelines can make all the difference in your year. Will this year be a year of triumph for you, a year of awesome success? Whatever your goals and resolutions, these tips can help power your success.


Definition: Team Development
Team Development creates a winning atmosphere by:

• Developing Trust among team members
• Opportunity to Practice Openness
• Enhances Cooperation Through Realization of Objectives
• Promotes Interdependence (Collaboration, Teamwork, Camaraderie, etc.)

Team Development’s purpose is to help a team engage in the process of self-examination to gain awareness of those conditions which are the sources of its strength and those conditions that keep it from functioning effectively. Through the team development process, the group learns how to make decisions and take those actions that will lead to better efficiency, productivity, product quality and quality of work life.

Whether it's on the sports field or in the workplace, teams take time to come together. There is a natural development process every team progresses through. It is useful to examine this maturation so that as a team member, leader or facilitator you can be prepared to work effectively with the team.

• Recognize that teams mature over time and develop along commonly defined paths and milestones.

• Teams develop through four stages: Initial stage, Processing, Coming Together— Normalizing and Performing. Good leader facilitation skills will help teams progress through the stages.

• Teams develop in unique ways, and they can move back and forth between one development stage and another based on team membership, outside influences or redirection of the team's purpose.

As a result of Team Development, team members set higher goals, people are more motivated to achieve their goals, everyone receives more assistance, support, and coaching, and the group produces more and better ideas.

Surveys with Team Development participants reveal that problems do not go away; they only get worse. By spending time working on solutions day-to-day in a Team mode, groups save time and money in the long run by not allowing problems to get worse.

The results are: Time saved, problems solved, more team cooperation, better communication, higher morale, more energy, synergy, enthusiasm, creativity, commitment, participation and hig

The Portfolio

Portfolio assessment is a multi-faceted process characterized by the following recurrent qualities:
• It is continuous and ongoing, providing both formative (i.e., ongoing) and summative (i.e., culminating) opportunities for monitoring students' progress toward achieving essential outcomes.
• It is multidimensional, i.e., reflecting a wide variety of artifacts and processes reflecting various aspects of students' learning process(es).
• It provides for collaborative reflection, including ways for students to reflect about their own thinking processes and metacognitive introspection as they monitor their own comprehension, reflect upon their approaches to problem-solving and decision-making, and observe their emerging understanding of subjects and skills.
Although approaches to portfolio development may vary, all of the major research and literature on portfolios reinforce the following characteristics:
• They clearly reflect stated learner outcomes identified in the core or essential curriculum that students are expected to study.
• They focus upon students' performance-based learning experiences as well as their acquisition of key knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
• They contain samples of work that stretch over an entire marking period, rather than single points in time.
• They contain works that represent a variety of different assessment tools.
• They contain a variety of work samples and evaluations of that work by the student, peers, and teachers, possible even parents' reactions.

The cover letter

Cover letter
A cover letter or covering letter or motivation letter or motivational letter or letter of motivation is a letter of introduction attached to, or accompanying another document such as a résumé or curriculum vitae.
For employment
Job seekers frequently send résumés or employment applications as attachments to a cover letter, by way of introducing themselves to recruiters or prospective employers and indicating their interest in the positions. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully written cover letters to screen applicants who are not sufficiently interested in their position or who lack the required writing skills. A cover letter is an accompanying letter that introduces you and your resume to a potential employer. You can send a cover letter with every resume you submit. A cover letter should not be longer than one page in length and contain 2 to 3 short paragraphs. There are three types of cover letters:
• The application letter which responds to a known job opening
• The prospecting letter which inquires about possible positions
• The networking letter which requests information and assistance in your job search
Format
Cover letters are generally one page at most in length, divided into a header, introduction, body, and closing.
• Header. Cover letters use standard business letter style, with the sender's address and other information, the recipient's contact information, and the date sent after either the sender's or the recipient's address. Following that is an optional reference section (e.g. "RE: Internship Opportunity at Global Corporation") and an optional transmission note (e.g. "Via Email to jobs@example.net"). The final part of the header is a salutation (e.g., "Dear Hiring Managers").
• Introduction. The introduction briefly states the specific position desired, and should be designed to catch the employer's immediate interest.
• Body. The body highlights or amplifies on material in the resume or job application, and explains why the job seeker is interested in the job and would be of value to the employer. Also, matters discussed typically include skills, qualifications, and past experience. If there are any special things to note such as availability date, they may be included as well.


• Closing. A closing sums up the letter, and indicates the next step the applicant expects to take. It may indicate that the applicant intends to contact the employer, although many favor the more indirect approach of simply saying that the applicant will look forward to hearing from or speaking with the employer. After the closing is a valediction ("Sincerely"), and then a signature line. Optionally, the abbreviation "ENCL" may be used to indicate that there are enclosures.
Other uses
Cover letters may also serve as marketing devices for prospective job seekers. Cover letters are used in connection with many business documents such as loan applications (Mortgage loan), contract drafts and proposals, and executed documents. They may serve the purpose of trying to catch the reader's interest or persuade the reader of something, or they may simply be an inventory or summary of the documents included along with a discussion of the expected future actions the sender or recipient will take in connection with the documents.

Communication

.
Communication is a process of transferring information from one source to another. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". Communication can be perceived as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually accepted[clarification needed] goal or direction.
The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior
Communication is a process whereby information is encoded and imparted by a sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using writing.
Communication is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.[2]
There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are message overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message complexity.[3]
Types of communication
There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language, voice tonality, and words. According to the research:[4]
• 55% of impact is determined by body language--postures, gestures, and eye contact,
• 38% by the tone of voice, and
• 7% by the content or the words used in the communication process.
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person's day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.


Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons.A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.
Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way[5] without body language, voice tonality or words.
Visual communication
Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form.
Communication as academic discipline
Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology,"[8] relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate.
Developing Communication Skills
Communication skills must be developed; they do not occur automatically. The ability to effectively communicate stems from experience. The experience of instructional
communication begins with role playing during the training to be an instructor, continues during the actual instruction and is enhanced by additional training.
Role Playing
Experience in instructional communication comes from actually doing it. This is learned in the beginning by way of role playing during the instructor's initial training. A

new instructor can try out different instructional techniques with an assigned instructor in the
case of a flight instructor applicant, or with a mentor or supervisor in the case of a maintenance instructor.
Instructional Communication
Instruction has taken place when the instructor has explained a particular procedure and subsequently determined that the desired student response has occurred. The instructor can improve communication by adhering to several techniques of good communication. One of the basic principles used in public speaking courses is to encourage students to talk about something they understand. It would not be good if an instructor without a maintenance background tried to teach a course for aviation maintenance. Instructors will perform better when speaking of something that they know very well and for which they have a high level of confidence.
Listening
Instructors must know something about their students in order to communicate effectively. As discussed earlier, an instructor needs to determine the abilities of the students and understand the students to properly communicate. One way of becoming better acquainted with students is to be a good listener. Instructors can use a number of techniques to become better at listening. It is important to realize that in order to master the art of listening, an attitude of wanting to listen must be developed.





Questioning
Good questioning can determine how well the student understands. It also shows the student that the instructor is paying attention. And it shows that the instructor is interested in the student's response. An instructor should ask both open-ended and focused
questions. Open-ended questions allow the student to explain more fully, Focused questions allow the instructor to concentrate on desired areas. An instructor may ask for additional details, examples, and impressions from the student. This allows the instructor to ask further questions if necessary. The presentation can then be modified to fit the understanding of the student.
Two ways of confirming that the student and instructor understand things in the same way are the use of paraphrasing and perception checking.
Instructional Enhancement
The deeper the knowledge of a particular area, the better the instructor is at conveying that information. For example, a maintenance instructor teaching basic electricity might be able to teach at a minimally satisfactory level if the instructor had only the same
training level as that being taught. If asked a question that exceeded the instructor's knowledge, the instructor could research the answer and get back to the student. It would be much better if the instructor, through experience or additional training, was prepared to answer the question initially. Additional knowledge and training would also bolster the instructor's confidence and give the instructional presentation more depth. Advanced courses in the instructional area and on instructional techniques are widely available. s taken place is to determine if the desired results have been achieved.
Barriers to Effective Communication
The nature of language and the way it is used often lead to misunderstandings. An example might be a maintenance instructor telling a student to time the magnetos. A student new to the maintenance field might think a stopwatch or clock would be necessary to do the requested task. Instruction would be necessary for the student to understand that the procedure has nothing to do with the usual concept of time. This is an example of a lack of common experience, one of four barriers to effective communication.

Lack of Common Experience
Lack of common experience between instructor and student is probably the greatest single barrier to effective communication. Many people seem to believe that words transport meanings from speaker to listener in the same way that a truck carries bricks from one location to another. Words, however, rarely carry precisely the same meaning

from the mind of the instructor to the mind of the student. the students understand that terminology.
Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
Languages abound with words that mean different things to different people. Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent.
Although it is obvious that words and the connotations they carry can be different, people sometimes fail to make the distinction. An aviation maintenance technician (AMT) might be introduced as a mechanic. To many people, the term mechanic conjures up images of a person laboring over an automobile. Being referred to as an aircraft mechanic might be
an improvement in some people's minds, but neither really portrays the training and skill of the trained AMT. Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to every person. To communicate effectively, speakers and writers should be aware of these differences. Words and symbols can then be carefully chosen to represent exactly what the speaker or writer intends.
Overuse of Abstractions
Abstractions are words that are general rather than specific. Concrete words or terms refer to objects that people can relate directly to their experiences. They specify an idea that can be perceived or a thing that can be visualized. Abstract words, on the other hand, stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, things that do not call forth mental images in the minds of the students. The word aircraft is an abstract word. It does not call to mind a specific aircraft in the imaginations of various students. One student may visualize an airplane, another student might visualize a helicopter, and still another student might visualize an airship. Although the word airplane is more specific, various students might envision anything from a Boeing 777 to a Piper Cub.
Interference
Barriers to effective communication are usually under the direct control of the instructor. However, interference is made up of factors that are outside the direct control of the instructor: physiological, environmental, and psychological interference. To communicate effectively, the instructor should consider the effects of these factors.
Psychological interference is any biological problem that may inhibit symbol reception, such as hearing loss, injury or physical illness. These, and other physiological factors, can inhibit communication because the student is not comfortable. The instructor must adapt
the presentation to allow the student to feel better about the situation and be more receptive to new ideas. Adaptation could be as simple as putting off a lesson until the


student is over an illness. Another accommodation could be the use of a seat cushion to allow a student to sit properly in the airplane.
Environmental interference is caused by external physical conditions. One example of this is the noise level found in many light aircraft. Noise not only impairs the communication process, but also can result in long- term damage to hearing. One solution to this problem is the use of headphones and an intercom system. If an intercom system is not available, a good solution is the use of earplugs. It has been shown that in addition to protecting hearing, use of earplugs actually clarifies speaker output.
Psychological interference is a product of how the instructor and student feel at the time the communication process is occurring. If either instructor or student is not committed to the communication process, communication is impaired. Fear of the situation or mistrust between the instructor and student could severely inhibit the flow of information.

The ABC ‘s of Speaking

• An effective speaker approaches his audience amiably .
• He applies brevity in his utterances.
• He exudes confidence.
• His diction is clear .
• He is oozing with enthusiasm .
• He is fluent in the language .
• His gestures come naturally .
• He avoids harsh comments .
• He uses illustrations to supplement his talk .
• He is jovial .
• He is knowledgeable about the subject .
• He has a liaison or link with his audience .
• He is well aware of his mannerisms .
• He is natural when he talks .
• He uses interesting openings or introduction .

Reading Techniques

A Survey of Reading Techniques

Dechant ( 1970 ) defines reading as the process of giving the significance intended by the writer to the graphic symbols by relating them to one’s own fund of experience .
The process of putting the reader in contact and communication with ideas and that it requires higher order thinking .

Some Reading Techniques
1. Skimming
2. Previewing
3. Scanning

Levels of Comprehension
1. Literal
2. Interpretative
3. Critical
4. Application

Reading Techniques
1. Skimming. This technique in reading focuses attention on the main idea of a paragraph or longer discourse . The reader is interested only in the overall picture of the text and does not intend to pick up the details . Thus , it is selective reading .
2. Previewing . Sometimes called prereading , this technique enables a reader to examine the material on the surface and to size up its length , organization , and content before reading it completely . The overall purpose , is to identify the central thoughts of the selection and to determine how they are organized .
Skim – reading . The reader who employs this technique uses skimming as an end in itself . He is interested only in the main idea contained in the reading material without concern for the details . His primary purpose is to obtain an overall impression of the selection .

The following procedure may be followed for effective skim – reading .
1. Review reading . This technique involves a procedure whch enhances the ability to store and retrieve information .
2. The SQ3R Method .
Steps :
a. Survey
b. Question
c. Read
d. Recite
3. Joeffe’s Formula
a. Associate
b. Visualize
c. Concentrate
d. Repeat


4. Mnemonics . A kind of memory system involving techniques that avoid rote learning .
Principles .
a. Use mental pictures.
b. Make things meaningful.
c. Make information familiar
d. Form unusual or exaggerated mental associations .
3. Scanning . The reader skips most of the lines and words in the selection as he searches for the particular information that he needs .



Let There Be Peace on Earth

Let there be peace on earth
And let it begin with me .
Let there be peace on earth
The peace that was meant to be .
With God as our Father
Brothers all are we.
Let me walk with my brother
In perfect harmony.
Let peace begin with me
Let peace be the moment now.
With every step I take
Let peace be my solemn vow.
To take each moment
And live each moment
In peace eternally
Let there be peace on earth
And let it begin with me

The Phrase

Syntax is that part which deals with the structure of the sentence

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words without subject or predicate , that functions as a single part of speech.. The following expressions are phrases :

Along the road
To the bank
In the garden
To dance in the program
Near the park

Types of phrases

A. Prepositional Phrase . A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of the preposition and any modifiers of the object . An object of the preposition is the noun or pronoun after a preposition .For example : toward the ocean , after him .
In the following sentences , the prepositional phrases are enclosed in parentheses. The preposition is marked prep . and the object of the preposition , o.p.
Prep. Op Prep. Op Prep. Op
Frequent changes ( in the weather ) are hard ( on all kinds ) ( of roads ) .
Prep. Op Prep. Op
We went ( to the movie ) (after the examination ) .
B. Verbal Phrase . A verbal phrase consists of a verbal and all its complements and modifier . There are three types of verbal phrases :
1. Participial Phrases . A participial phrase is a group of words that contains a participle and all its modifiers and complements . It functions like an adjective . Participles are verb forms that end with ing , ed or en .
Examples :
The little girl , dancing gracefully , smiles at me .
We went to the party bringing our escorts .
2. Infinitive Phrase . An infinitive phrase is a group of words that contains an infinitive verb form ( to + verb ) and that functions like a noun , an adjective , or an adverb . It may contain objects , subject complements , or modifiers .
Examples :
I hope to visit Mexico this summer.
In order to fly , a duck must be about six weeks old .
3 . Gerund Phrase. A gerund phrase is a group of words that contains a gerund ( ing verb form ) and that functions like a noun . It may contain objects , subject complements , or modifiers .
Examples :
Driving when you are overly tired is dangerous .
Winning this contest made her popular in the school .

levels of comprehension

Levels of Comprehension

1. Literal
2. Interpretative
3. Critical
4. Application

1.Literal refers to the acquisition of meaning of ideas or information that are explicitly stated in the text.
a. Identifying Specific Information . This reading skill requires one to focus his attention only on one or some particular information or detail which he needs from a text ; the rest of the text may not be read anymore .
b. Sequencing Events or Ideas . The reader’s ability to grasp thee sequence of ideas as presented by the writer enables him to summarize , outline and infer correctly .
c. Following Instructions
2. Interpretative Level of Comprehension . Sometimes , an information or concept is not explicitly stated in the text so that the reader has to go through the process of inferring beyond the literal meaning .
Interpretation is reading or getting meaning between lines which requires the reader’s sensitivity to clues and the ability to link these clues to his own experience .
a. Identifying the Main Idea. ( Implied ) .
Main idea refers to the central meaning , the focal point or the thesis of a sentence or discourse .
b. Forming Conclusion
Conclusion is a judgment inferred from evidence . It is drawn from the information given in the text and is usually stated in the manner of a theory or general statement about the subject .
c. Drawing Implications .
Given Information Implications
The dog began to bark wildly. A stranger is on the gate .
d. Drawing Inferences .
Inference “ Nothing more than a probable or natural explanation of facts and arises from the commonly accepted experience of mankind and the inferences which reasonable men would draw from these experiences .
Ramon is often misunderstood by others . He seems to be teeming with ideas but he cannot explain clearly what he wants to say . He is inarticulate .
e. Predicting Outcomes. Closely related to the skill of formulating conclusions , generalizations and implications and as is important as them
3. Critical Level of Comprehension. The judgment of validity or worth of what is read or heard , based on sound criteria of standards developed through previous experiences . It is reading beyond the lines . Among the identified skill in this level are making judgments of
a. The author’s intent or purpose
b . The accuracy , logic , reliability and authenticity of the text or writing
c. The author’s point of view
d. His language
e. His style of presentation
f. The appropriacy of the literary and expository devices he uses to attain his purpose g. Distinguishing a fact from an opinion , a conclusion from a hypothesis

What questions may be asked for each level of comprehension ? A few examples are hereunder presented to guide you .
1. Literal Level Where was the news item written ?
During what occasion was the denunciation made ?
In what part of the world is the fighting taking place ?
2. Interpretative Level What is the general idea of the news story ?
What is the meaning of the line “ war has been declared on
Peace ?
Do you think it was right for the Pope to focus his Easter
Message on the war in the Holy Land ? Explain your
Answer .
3. Critical Level Is the title attention – catching ? Does it carry the news by
Itself ?
Are the details easily understood ?
The story was found on the front page of the newspaper.
Was the prominence given to it justifiable ?
4 . Application Level of Comprehension This level of comprehension goes beyond the three levels and culminates in the application of listening or reading to practical applications
Using Context Clues
Context Clues are words or expressions that hint at the meaning of a word .
Paraphrasing . A paraphrase is a restatement of the meaning of a passage or word for clarity . It is a simplified version of the original work .
Summarizing . A summary is a brief account of the main ideas or major points discussed in a much longer article . Sometimes called précis , it is a condensation of the original material usually in the reader’s language and style .

a survey of reading techniques

A Survey of Reading Techniques

Dechant ( 1970 ) defines reading as the process of giving the significance intended by the writer to the graphic symbols by relating them to one’s own fund of experience .
The process of putting the reader in contact and communication with ideas and that it requires higher order thinking .

Some Reading Techniques
1. Skimming
2. Previewing
3. Scanning

Levels of Comprehension
1. Literal
2. Interpretative
3. Critical
4. Application

Reading Techniques
1. Skimming. This technique in reading focuses attention on the main idea of a paragraph or longer discourse . The reader is interested only in the overall picture of the text and does not intend to pick up the details . Thus , it is selective reading .
2. Previewing . Sometimes called prereading , this technique enables a reader to examine the material on the surface and to size up its length , organization , and content before reading it completely . The overall purpose , is to identify the central thoughts of the selection and to determine how they are organized .
Skim – reading . The reader who employs this technique uses skimming as an end in itself . He is interested only in the main idea contained in the reading material without concern for the details . His primary purpose is to obtain an overall impression of the selection .

The following procedure may be followed for effective skim – reading .
1. Review reading . This technique involves a procedure whch enhances the ability to store and retrieve information .
2. The SQ3R Method .
Steps :
a. Survey
b. Question
c. Read
d. Recite
3. Joeffe’s Formula
a. Associate
b. Visualize
c. Concentrate
d. Repeat


4. Mnemonics . A kind of memory system involving techniques that avoid rote learning .
Principles .
a. Use mental pictures.
b. Make things meaningful.
c. Make information familiar
d. Form unusual or exaggerated mental associations .
3. Scanning . The reader skips most of the lines and words in the selection as he searches for the particular information that he needs .



Let There Be Peace on Earth

Let there be peace on earth
And let it begin with me .
Let there be peace on earth
The peace that was meant to be .
With God as our Father
Brothers all are we.
Let me walk with my brother
In perfect harmony.
Let peace begin with me
Let peace be the moment now.
With every step I take
Let peace be my solemn vow.
To take each moment
And live each moment
In peace eternally
Let there be peace on earth
And let it begin with me

Thursday, June 25, 2009

Special Occasion Speeches

Special Occasion Speeches


SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES

Inspirational
Commemoration or Celebration
Nomination
Goodwill
Tribute
Toast
Introduction
Farewell
Entertainment
Dedication
Eulogies/Memorial


Here are some samples of classic special occasion speeches

Inspirational: Also, "Reinforce." One speaks to the converted. The pre-game pep talk is a form of this speech. Party Nomination speeches also have characteristics of inspiration. Emotional appeals are appropriate—no proof is necessary—because of audiences agreement. You are "preaching to the converted," or the congregation. What you want to make sure to do is provide "reasons" or links for the audience to grasp. That is, tell them why this event should be important to them and about what they should to be excited. Using personal experience here is often quite useful. Keep your point simple; be sure to make your point clear; and, identify specific behaviors the audience can engage in.

Commemoration or Celebration: Commemoration deals with past events, e.g., patriotic and historical occasions and celebrations of past events—cf. the speeches on Martin Luther King, Washington, or Susan B. Anthony’s birthdays. Celebrations are often more focused on current events: graduations, celebrations of "specialness," bicentennials, sesquicentennials, individual or group accomplishments, etc. Be sure to have a coherent point. Narrative, personal and family experiences, and the retelling of important stories are strategies that are often employed here.

Nomination: Persuasive and enthusiastic. Speech to actuate. Like a speech of tribute. Business-like, energetic, and your goal is to stress the qualifications of the person involved. Begin with statement of intent—"to rise to place a name in nomination"; state the requirements needed for the job; name the candidate and state the person’s qualifications for the position—your job is to show why the nominee is an excellent choice; finally urge the audience to endorse the candidate as you formally place their name in nomination. Alternatively, you might start with the person’s name if they are already well known and understood to be a potential candidate.

  1. Stress dominant traits.
  2. Mention only outstanding achievements.
  3. Give special emphasis to the skills of the person.
  4. Narration and anecdote is appropriate here, as are metaphors.
  5. Try to "whip up the crowd"—especially supporters.

Goodwill: Create or strengthen favorable attitudes: Establish Ethos. Goodwill speeches are based around creation/cultivation of modesty, tolerance, and good humor. Sometimes your goal will be to change uninformed beliefs and hostile attitudes. You must know and represent the facts clearly and show a tolerant, patient, attitude. Do not deride or attack opposing views or competitors but instead be good-natured and good-humored. Keep in mind three things:

  1. Present interesting and novel information and facts about your subject;
  2. Show a relationship between the subject and the lives of your audience;
  3. Offer a definite service or information to the audience. Humility is often the key here. Do not so much attack oppositional views as offer to help the audience understand yours better. Introduction (of self) speeches where a speaker identifies/explains his/her services are examples of this speech.

Tribute: To create in those who hear it a sense of appreciation for the traits or accomplishments of the particular person or group. If you make the audience realize their essential worth you have succeeded, however, you should go beyond this; by honoring the person, you may arouse deeper devotion to the cause or vales the person or group represented. Avoid pedantic speech and ostentatious speaking—no purple prose.

  1. Stress dominant traits.
  2. Mention only outstanding achievements
  3. Give special emphasis to the influence of the group/person.

Toast: Many cultures including our own, employ a sophisticated tradition of toasting. Russian Tomadas, for example, entertain as well as serving as toast master/mistress. "Toast Masters" (the group) in a sense, practice a form of toasting; as does the Rotary club. The Russians may toast all around the table, and the Georgians (former USSR not U.S.) are considered great speakers and often offer very beautiful and elaborate toasts.

  1. The purpose of the toast is to honor and call attention to someone or something.
  2. They can be humorous or serious depending on the situation or speaker.
  3. In Western culture you should keep it short and have a point (1–2 minutes is good).
  4. Panache, kairos, polish, and poise are most important here. You want to give the most memorable toast at the table.
  5. Don’t read from notecards.

Introduction: Make the audience receptive for the speaker and want to hear him/her: Talk with the speaker, perhaps consult their resume or vitae. The speech of introduction is intended to highlight the accomplishments, credentials, activities, and characteristics of the individual to speak. There are several conventions to be observed when conducting an effective speech of introduction. Do them well and the audience will be excited and feel rewarded to hear the speaker; do them poorly and the audience will want you to shut up.

  1. Make the audience want to hear the speaker.
    • You might relate an anecdote or (short) story, arouse curiosity, etc.
    • Make an effort to get the audience to like/respect the person—use information that the audience would find interesting, significant, or appealing.
  2. Cover the aspects of the speakers background that the audience would find pertinent: education, special honors, work, etc. (This information can be gained by interviewing the speaker or getting an information sheet from them).
  3. Reveal the title or topic of the speech and make a connection between the speech and the audience—do not talk about the topic yourself.
  4. Never talk about yourself or your own ideas/theories on the subject. Although, you might relate some anecdote about how the person to speak was especially helpful, etc.
  5. Neither praise too highly, nor belittle or insult the speaker.
  6. The more famous the speaker the less you need to say.
  7. Some humor is okay, if it is in keeping with the occasion and tasteful.
  8. Be brief—Get up, Speak up, Shut up.

Farewell: When someone is bidding farewell to others they often comment on the situation under which they are leaving—it may be bitter as in Nixon’s case, or fond as when a respected school teacher or colleague retires. Farewell speeches are given by both the retiree, and by those who are remaining behind. When expressing gratitude for another, note the experiences, kindness, support, helpfulness, opportunities, consideration, and warmth the individual extended.

  1. Honor them—create a desire for the audience to emulate him/her.
  2. Do not try to tell everything about the person—pick out the dominant personal traits, outstanding achievements, and/or influence on others. Keep your lists short but keen.
  3. Although you may express regret at their departure, be positive about the future—tell where they are going…you will miss them, but they go on to greater/better things.
  4. Do not make the audience overly depressed.
  5. Sometimes a gift is connected with the speech (the cliché gold watch). Present it at the end of the speech.
When you are bidding farewell, you should also note the experiences, kindness, support, helpfulness, opportunities, consideration, and warmth your colleagues extended. Same principles as above apply here. Avoid the temptation to "really say what you think" about those who have wronged you, impeded your progress/success, or were downright mean. Such speeches often follow people and lead to regret for giving them.

Entertainment: Usually brief 3–5 minutes; but may be longer, 5–10 minutes tops. The speech to entertain requires more imagination, creativity, discretion, versatility, and judgment than perhaps any other type of speech. The purpose of the speech to entertain is, according to Robert G. King, "to interest, please and amuse your listeners." J.K.Horner writes that the primary purpose of the after dinner [or entertainment] speech is "entertainment and good fellowship." Enjoyment is the desired response from the audience in a speech to entertain. Its function is to contribute favorably to the climate of fellowship among the listeners. In a successful speech to entertain, observes William Allen Wood, "we expect our intellect, our taste, and our affections to be pleased." Additional suggestions for the composition and delivery of after dinner speeches are as follows:

  1. Carefully select an interesting, timely, and appropriate topic. Having something familiar in the talk that the audience can relate to will enhance listener interest. Having a novel or surprise feature in the talk will enhance attention.
  2. Build your speech around a central theme, moral, or one-point idea.
  3. Support your main point or central theme with colorful stories, narrative and examples.
  4. Be imaginative and creative when delivering your talk. Few speeches demand more imagination and creativity than the speech to entertain.
  5. Be genial and goodnatured when delivering your talk—irony is acceptable but not bitterness.
  6. Be optimistic and modest when speaking and create an appropriate mood for your listeners.
  7. Use plenty of humor.
  8. Humor is the key ingredient in speeches to entertain. This can be accomplished through satire, irony, banter, ridicule, and wit. Some of the recognized constituents of humor are:
  • Exaggeration: the process of taking an idea or statement beyond the limits of reality.
  • Incongruity: the process of provoking an unexpected response from one’s speech material.
  • Anticlimax: arranges a series of items in a growing order of significance only to end suddenly in the absurd.
  • Puns: involve the humorous use of a word that can be interpreted multiple ways.
  • Play on words: deals with the imaginative and creative use of language designed to produce a humorous response.

Dedication: Dedication speeches are given for the person or people who were instrumental in the construction, fundraising, or placement of buildings, objects, monuments, artworks, ships, (or any monumental vessel) and places (parks, etc.).

  1. State the purpose of the occasion or the meaning to the group or organization—yes, they know this but you do it anyway for any guests or media who might be in attendance.
  2. Give brief, pertinent facts—the history of a building, object, or the persons involved with it—life facts about the person for a statue, etc.
  3. Express thanks for any person particularly instrumental in building, creating, and/or fund raising.
  4. What inspiration for the future can the assembled group (and those not assembled) draw from the occasion/event?
  5. Narration/anecdote is appropriate here, as are brief metaphorical stories or aphorisms.
  6. Eloquence, originality, and profundity are the key here. Do not rely on stereotypes, do not use puns, avoid dead metaphors, and try to say something lasting and something that will sound good on the 5:00 news.

NB: The Champagne bottle is scored so that it will break when it is struck on the ship or building (score it well so it only takes one shot). If an elderly person is doing the breaking, be sure a couple of young people are nearby to assist them if they lose their balance.

Eulogies/Memorial: Eulogies are usually given for a person soon after their death at a funeral service; memorials are for large groups and are often held well after an individual(s) death.

  1. The general purpose is to pay honor or tribute to the deceased. Never forget, however, that you are giving the speech for the living and not the dead.
  2. Stress the dominant traits, outstanding achievements, and/or the influence the person had on events and people.
  3. A biographical account of the person’s life (birth to death) is often part of the eulogy.
  4. Create a sense of appreciation for the person. And hold their life up as one worthy of emulation.…Unless you think that they were a rotten so-and-so in which case you probably shouldn’t be speaking about them.
  5. Highlight using quotations, stories, and examples.
  6. The goals of a eulogy are to console the audience as well as to praise the deceased.
  7. The eulogy is usually short, 2–6 minutes, and is usually followed by a sermon.
  8. Religious messages are also combined with the eulogy.

Friday, June 19, 2009

the communication process

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Communication is a process of transferring information from one source to another. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". Communication can be perceived as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually accepted[clarification needed] goal or direction.
The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior
Communication is a process whereby information is encoded and imparted by a sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using writing.
Communication is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.[2]
There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are message overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message complexity.[3]
Types of communication
There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language, voice tonality, and words. According to the research:[4]
55% of impact is determined by body language--postures, gestures, and eye contact,
38% by the tone of voice, and
7% by the content or the words used in the communication process.
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person's day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.


Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons.A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.
Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way[5] without body language, voice tonality or words.
Visual communication
Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form.
Communication as academic discipline
Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology,"[8] relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate.
Developing Communication Skills
Communication skills must be developed; they do not occur automatically. The ability to effectively communicate stems from experience. The experience of instructional
communication begins with role playing during the training to be an instructor, continues during the actual instruction and is enhanced by additional training.
Role Playing
Experience in instructional communication comes from actually doing it. This is learned in the beginning by way of role playing during the instructor's initial training. A

new instructor can try out different instructional techniques with an assigned instructor in the
case of a flight instructor applicant, or with a mentor or supervisor in the case of a maintenance instructor.
Instructional Communication
Instruction has taken place when the instructor has explained a particular procedure and subsequently determined that the desired student response has occurred. The instructor can improve communication by adhering to several techniques of good communication. One of the basic principles used in public speaking courses is to encourage students to talk about something they understand. It would not be good if an instructor without a maintenance background tried to teach a course for aviation maintenance. Instructors will perform better when speaking of something that they know very well and for which they have a high level of confidence.
Listening
Instructors must know something about their students in order to communicate effectively. As discussed earlier, an instructor needs to determine the abilities of the students and understand the students to properly communicate. One way of becoming better acquainted with students is to be a good listener. Instructors can use a number of techniques to become better at listening. It is important to realize that in order to master the art of listening, an attitude of wanting to listen must be developed.




Questioning
Good questioning can determine how well the student understands. It also shows the student that the instructor is paying attention. And it shows that the instructor is interested in the student's response. An instructor should ask both open-ended and focused
questions. Open-ended questions allow the student to explain more fully, Focused questions allow the instructor to concentrate on desired areas. An instructor may ask for additional details, examples, and impressions from the student. This allows the instructor to ask further questions if necessary. The presentation can then be modified to fit the understanding of the student.
Two ways of confirming that the student and instructor understand things in the same way are the use of paraphrasing and perception checking.
Instructional Enhancement
The deeper the knowledge of a particular area, the better the instructor is at conveying that information. For example, a maintenance instructor teaching basic electricity might be able to teach at a minimally satisfactory level if the instructor had only the same
training level as that being taught. If asked a question that exceeded the instructor's knowledge, the instructor could research the answer and get back to the student. It would be much better if the instructor, through experience or additional training, was prepared to answer the question initially. Additional knowledge and training would also bolster the instructor's confidence and give the instructional presentation more depth. Advanced courses in the instructional area and on instructional techniques are widely available. s taken place is to determine if the desired results have been achieved.
Barriers to Effective Communication
The nature of language and the way it is used often lead to misunderstandings. An example might be a maintenance instructor telling a student to time the magnetos. A student new to the maintenance field might think a stopwatch or clock would be necessary to do the requested task. Instruction would be necessary for the student to understand that the procedure has nothing to do with the usual concept of time. This is an example of a lack of common experience, one of four barriers to effective communication.
Lack of Common Experience
Lack of common experience between instructor and student is probably the greatest single barrier to effective communication. Many people seem to believe that words transport meanings from speaker to listener in the same way that a truck carries bricks from one location to another. Words, however, rarely carry precisely the same meaning

from the mind of the instructor to the mind of the student. the students understand that terminology.
Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
Languages abound with words that mean different things to different people. Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent.
Although it is obvious that words and the connotations they carry can be different, people sometimes fail to make the distinction. An aviation maintenance technician (AMT) might be introduced as a mechanic. To many people, the term mechanic conjures up images of a person laboring over an automobile. Being referred to as an aircraft mechanic might be
an improvement in some people's minds, but neither really portrays the training and skill of the trained AMT. Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to every person. To communicate effectively, speakers and writers should be aware of these differences. Words and symbols can then be carefully chosen to represent exactly what the speaker or writer intends.
Overuse of Abstractions
Abstractions are words that are general rather than specific. Concrete words or terms refer to objects that people can relate directly to their experiences. They specify an idea that can be perceived or a thing that can be visualized. Abstract words, on the other hand, stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, things that do not call forth mental images in the minds of the students. The word aircraft is an abstract word. It does not call to mind a specific aircraft in the imaginations of various students. One student may visualize an airplane, another student might visualize a helicopter, and still another student might visualize an airship. Although the word airplane is more specific, various students might envision anything from a Boeing 777 to a Piper Cub.
Interference
Barriers to effective communication are usually under the direct control of the instructor. However, interference is made up of factors that are outside the direct control of the instructor: physiological, environmental, and psychological interference. To communicate effectively, the instructor should consider the effects of these factors.
Psychological interference is any biological problem that may inhibit symbol reception, such as hearing loss, injury or physical illness. These, and other physiological factors, can inhibit communication because the student is not comfortable. The instructor must adapt
the presentation to allow the student to feel better about the situation and be more receptive to new ideas. Adaptation could be as simple as putting off a lesson until the


student is over an illness. Another accommodation could be the use of a seat cushion to allow a student to sit properly in the airplane.
Environmental interference is caused by external physical conditions. One example of this is the noise level found in many light aircraft. Noise not only impairs the communication process, but also can result in long- term damage to hearing. One solution to this problem is the use of headphones and an intercom system. If an intercom system is not available, a good solution is the use of earplugs. It has been shown that in addition to protecting hearing, use of earplugs actually clarifies speaker output.
Psychological interference is a product of how the instructor and student feel at the time the communication process is occurring. If either instructor or student is not committed to the communication process, communication is impaired. Fear of the situation or mistrust between the instructor and student could severely inhibit the flow of information.

The ABC ‘s of Speaking

An effective speaker approaches his audience amiably .
He applies brevity in his utterances.
He exudes confidence.
His diction is clear .
He is oozing with enthusiasm .
He is fluent in the language .
His gestures come naturally .
He avoids harsh comments .
He uses illustrations to supplement his talk .
He is jovial .
He is knowledgeable about the subject .
He has a liaison or link with his audience .
He is well aware of his mannerisms .
He is natural when he talks .
He uses interesting openings or introduction .